Summaries

Rewriting the History of Civilization to Build the Base for Chinas Independent Knowledge Systems

Cao Shunqing， Liu Shishi

Summary： China has had its own independent knowledge systems in philosophy， literary theory， language， historiography， art， education， medicine， science and technology and many other disciplines since ancient times. However， these original independent knowledge systems have been largely unrecognized， abolished， distorted， or marginalized in modern and contemporary times. Where does the problem lie？ Actually， the root of the problem lies in the perspective of civilization. There is a serious tendency of Western centralism in the writing of world civilization history， and the international community is full of prejudice， distortion， and denigration towards the Third World civilizations， including Chinese civilization. On the one hand， Western scholars， with a superior attitude， claim that “China has no philosophy”，“China has no science”， “China has no mathematics”， and fail to pay attention to the exchange and mutual learning in the development of civilization. They talk a lot about “the clash of civilizations” and “the end of history”， arrogantly denying Eastern civilization and the existence of Chinas independent knowledge system. On the other hand， Eastern scholars， with an inferiority complex， follow the superior perspective of Western civilization and lose their confidence in their own civilization.

The perspective of civilization is a foundation and the base of the independent knowledge system. All disciplines will be determined or influenced by this foundation. The various disciplines formed in modern China， including humanities and social sciences as well as natural sciences， are basically the products of the spread of Western learning to the East. The disciplinary standards， disciplinary connotations， and disciplinary systems that support the production of knowledge in various disciplines are all built on the foundation of Western civilization. Since the foundation of civilization is Western， the knowledge system constructed on it will inevitably follow Western ideas， or even look to the West for guidance， which directly leads to the denigration of Chinese civilization， the outright denial of Chinas independent knowledge system， and the collapse of Chinas independent knowledge system as a whole， causing Chinas independent knowledge system to go astray on a self-destructive road.

Therefore， to construct Chinas independent knowledge system， the first thing to do is to break the shackles of the knowledge system centered on the superiority of Western civilization. To reshape the perspective of civilization， we must “rewrite the history of civilization”， which requires scholars from all over the world to re-recognize the characteristics and values of Chinese civilization based on historical facts of civilization， construct Chinas independent knowledge system from the foundation of civilization， regain the “right to speak” for various disciplinary knowledge systems， and truly build an independent， localized Chinese civilization discourse and independent knowledge system with universal value for all humanity in the mutual learning of civilizations. Guided by international competitiveness and world influence， we should rewrite the history of civilization， reshape the perspective of civilization， recognize the worldwide contribution of Chinese civilization， provide Chinese wisdom for the human knowledge system， and provide Chinese discourse for new forms of human civilization.

Key words： Rewriting the history of civilization; Building Chinas independent knowledge systems; Outlook on civilizations; Variation theory; Chinese discourse

Rewriting Art History： Starting from Expelling the Western Centrism Discourse Specter

Zhi Yu

Summary：" As a discipline， Art History first emerged in Europe， and its concept and writing paradigms have always been Western centrism. With the global expansion of Western academic discourse， Western centrism， as the discourse specter of Art History， has been dominating the writings of art history in various countries around the world， either explicitly or implicitly. Whether it is Art History， European Art History， World Art History， or Global Art History， the revision of the terminology used in art history writing reflects the aspirations and efforts of art historians to write a general history of human arts， but it does not change the fact that existing art history writing is a practice of Western centrism discourse.

Re-examining the writing of world art history， we can distinguish three major phases. As Incomplete Art History， the writing of art history before the 20th century was in an unconscious state of pre-world history writing， and non-Western art was often directly ignored or overlooked. From the early 20th century to World War II， there was a clear concept of World History in the writing of art history， and art historians gradually and consciously incorporated Asia， Africa， and the Americas into the field of writing. However， influenced by the long-standing discourse specter of Western centrism， the world art history of this phase can be called the Unequal Art History. During this period， art history works often used works and phenomena from China， Japan， India， and other countries as embellishments and decorations for world art history， without giving Eastern art an equal status as European art.

Since the mid-20th century， art history writing has entered its third phase. Despite the guidance of the concept of Global History， the writing of art history during this period still failed to escape the influence and control of the discourse specter of Western centrism. As Unreal Art History， the new phase of art history writing used various writing strategies such as Global History， New Art History， Art Geography or Neuro-art History to rewrite or disguise the characteristics and connotations of Eastern art， further concealing the discourse specter of Western centrism. From Incomplete Art History， Unequal Art History， to Unreal Art History， the discourse of Western centrism has led Eastern arts to repeatedly fall into three similar aphasia states： the absent East， the substitute East， and the disfigured East. To complete the rewriting and reconstruction of Art History， it is necessary to start by expelling the discourse specter of Western centrism.

Key words： Art history; Western Centrism; Rewriting civilization history; Discourse specter

Chinas Legal Historiography and the Construction of Chinese Legal Knowledge System

Hou Xinyi

Summary：" As a basic legal discipline， Chinese legal historiography bears the critical responsibility of providing autonomous experience and original knowledge for Chinese jurisprudence， which determines the unique national feature of Chinese jurisprudence. However， due to the differences in the types of knowledge and the unique ways of expression， Chinese legal historiography is highly marginalized in the area of jurisprudence studies， and little attention has been paid to the work of scholars on Chinese legal historiography. On the other hand， the authorities have recently emphasized the need to promote and inherit the excellent traditional Chinese legal culture. This contrast between official expectation and reality is bound to affect the mentality of legal historians. In the authors opinion， two academic topics must be dealt with in order to enhance and change the academic level and disciplinary status of Chinese legal historiography， which involve attitude， value， professional ability and scientific method. One is what “traditional Chinese law” is， and the other is how to evaluate “modern Chinas legal transformation”.

China has its own well-developed legal civilization， but in recent times， the Chinese people have gone through a complex process of confusion， denial， criticism， and then recognition of traditional Chinese law. Facing the change of the times， legal historians need to maintain sufficient stamina， uphold a scientific attitude and people-centered values， and use solid professional techniques to wholly and accurately present Chinas own legal tradition， reveal its characteristics and the values it upholds， and prevent traditional law from re-emerging in the form of stigmatization or whitewashing. Chinese traditional law must be transformed， and the people of China have had a clear understanding of this. As a result， since the late Qing period， legal transformation has been an essential topic in Chinese jurisprudence and Chinese legal practice. So far， there has been adequate research on the process， power， content， and other aspects related to Chinas modern legal transformation. The real difficulty lies in what direction to take and how to evaluate the transformation. Transformation does not mean abandoning all of Chinas traditional law， nor does it mean adopting all of the modern Western law. The transformation can be successful only when it meets the requirement of modernization.

As far as the research method is concerned， it is necessary to consider the three kinds of legal systems and jurisprudential knowledge in different stages of Chinese history， that is， the traditional Chinese legal norms and jurisprudential expertise， those introduced into China in late Qing， and those created by the Chinese Communist regime before 1949. These legal systems have appeared in different eras， and reflect different cultures. Some of them are the embodiment of nationalism and national spirit， some embody the professional attributes of modern legal disciplines and are the institutional channel for Chinas development towards the world stage， and some provide unique perspectives for understanding Chinas current rule of law practice. All of them serve as the indispensable intellectual prerequisites and historical dimensions for the study of the history of Chinese law and have obvious historical origins in the current practice of the rule of law， i.e.，the construction of the rule of law in China. Any study of traditional Chinese law and modern legal transformation cannot ignore their existence.

Key words：" Legal historiography as a discipline; Knowledge system; Academic innovation; Legal tradition; Legal transformation

On Marxs Criticism and Transformation of Hegels Speculative Philosophy

Huang Zhijun

Summary：" Through the investigation of the history of thought， it can be revealed that there are important differences between Marxs criticism of Hegels speculative philosophy in Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right and Paris Manuscript. In Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right， Marx， deeply influenced by Feuerbachs critical speculative philosophy， launched a fierce attack on Hegels speculative philosophy from the aspects of the reversal of the conceptual subject and the real subject， the identity of the conceptual contradiction rather than the solution， and the mystification of the relationship between experience and speculation. But in Paris Manuscript， Marx changed his attitude and position of strongly criticizing speculative philosophy in the past， and recognized the positive significance of Hegels speculative philosophy （speculative dialectics） while highly affirming Feuerbachs philosophy， that is， it regards mans self-production as a process， a process of self-promotion and self-creation. Within the scope of alienation， this speculative philosophy has grasped the dialectical movement of real human life， which has a critical form. In the process of thinking， it connects the links of the development of things with the whole of things organically.

To grasp Hegels speculative concept and method， we need to go back to the explicit elaboration in Phenomenology of Spirit and Little Logic. In the former， Hegel argues that the main task of speculative thought is the expression of truth， that is， the dialectical movement of things， the process by which things arise of their own， develop of themselves， and return to themselves. Speculative thinking shows its strong sense of life and reality. In the latter he holds that speculation is only the law of reason through thought， that is， the law of affirming reason. Unlike dialectics， which contains the negation of oneself in the affirmation， the speculative stage strives to sublate this negation， and is the law that contains the affirmation in the negation.

In the criticism of political economy later， Marx made a new materialist transformation and scientific application of Hegels speculative method. In the transformation of the speculative subject， Marx transformed the “impersonal reason” as the subject in speculative philosophy into the real person and his activities in the social relations. In the transformation of speculative process， Marx transformed the conceptual self movement in speculative philosophy into a consistent speculative movement of logic and history. In terms of the transformation of speculative results， Marx transformed the concrete totality in Hegels speculative philosophy， which is the result of thinking and the actual process of the development of things， into the concrete totality as the result of thinking grasping the development process of real things. From this point of view， we can see that in the process of constructing scientific political economy， Marx did not blindly negate and abandon Hegels speculative method， but tried to sublate and transform this speculative method in combination with the study of modern capitalist society， and applied it to the grasp of the category of political economy and its logical order.

Key words： Speculative philosophy; Speculative method; Dialectics; Criticism of political economy

In What Sense Does Marx Criticize the Totality of Hegels Dialectics

Yin Jian

Summary： "Marx criticizes the totality of Hegels dialectics from three perspectives： existentialism， methodology and argumentation mode. In terms of existential theory， Marx reveals that Hegels dialectics covered the “non-critical” essence of its real activities with formal criticism， and believes that Hegel eliminated the contradiction between the state and civil society in reality， which is rooted in the mystical characteristics of Hegels state. Hegel believes that spiritual activities regard reality as a category and all human practices as critical dialectical thinking activities. Disregarding the characteristics of existentialism that the state and civil society， as the substantive existence， change according to the dialectical movement of the subjects activity mode， Hegels dialectics also avoids the criticism of the contradiction between the universal interest and the individual interest， revealing the illusory form that the subject and object directly reach the “unity” through the “same” path without critical movement in the conceptual system.

In terms of methodology， when analyzing the “medium” that Hegel relies on to achieve the unity of subject and object， Marx criticizes the logical rupture caused by Hegels willfully shifting the role of “self-consciousness” instead of labor to play the role of “medium”. He believes that Hegel shifts the theoretical perspective to the universal truth of “absolute freedom” in order to ensure the “absolute unity” of subject and object. The dialectical movement that has caused the “intermediary” method to shift from labor to “self-consciousness” results in the logical incoherence of the nature of freedom recognized by “self-consciousness”， because Hegel causes a logical break when he replaces labor as “intermediary” with “self-consciousness”. In terms of argumentation methods， Marx， by examining Hegels direct application of the dialectical movement of “self-consciousness” to the operational logic of analyzing the totality of real society， criticizes Hegel for being trapped in the “internal reflection” of consciousness and failing to demonstrate the understanding that is compatible with the “external reflection” of the object， indicating that Hegel covers up the subjects actual understanding of external reality. In the final analysis， it is caused by his epistemological insistence on “absolute unity”.

Marxs perspective and criticism of the totality of Hegels dialectics reflect his concern about the process of dialectical unity of the subject through objectified activities and objects in history， indicating that he tries to elaborate the totality thinking of mans continuous reflection and reconstruction of himself as a historical existence in practice， and demonstrating a practical argumentation mode of “thinking from the back” and a realistic extension of the critical perspective. By criticizing the dimensions of existentialism， methodology and argumentation mode， Marx draws a clear line with Hegels totality theory of dialectics， and unifies the subject and the object concerned by the totality of dialectics on the basis of the relational existence generated by practice， reflecting a perspective extending from philosophical criticism to political economy criticism.

Key words：Marx; Hegel; Totality of dialectics; Unity of subject and object

Chinas Balanced Development of Population in the Context of High-quality Development

Song Jian

Summary：" China has entered a new stage of development， in which high-quality development is a distinct theme in all fields. Population development goals need to be re-examined from the perspective of high-quality development. There has been no consensus yet on the answers to such important questions as “How to understand the high-quality development in the field of population”？ “What factors are restricting the long-term balanced development of population？” and “How to promote the long-term balanced development of population to achieve high-quality development of population”？ The concept of “high-quality population development” is put forward at a time when Chinas population situation is undergoing an important turning point. At present， Chinas population development presents the trends of fewer children， aging， and regional difference in population growth or decline. These characteristics are the inevitable results of demographic transition.

The total population has reached its peak in advance， the peak number is fewer than expected， the population growth has changed from positive growth to zero and to negative， and the low fertility rate is expected to continue for a long time. In this context， high-quality development has become the inevitable choice for population development. High-quality population development requires greater attention to the quality of the population， replacing “increment” with “improvement” and “manpower” with “talent”， and giving full play to the role of the quality factors embodied in the population itself， so that more people can better enjoy the fruits of high-quality development and live a high-quality life. Long-term balanced development is the main goal of population development and the inherent requirement of high-quality population development as well， which is not only reflected in the interdependence between the internal elements of the population system， and the coordination and adaptation between the population system and the social and economic system， but also in the inheritance and sustainability between generations.

In particular， sustainable development requires long-term balanced population development. In a sense， balance is an ideal goal， and a hope to break the unbalanced normal state and status quo. In the process of demographic transition and social and economic development， population is usually in an unbalanced state， and the “unbalanced and inadequate development” in social contradictions is reflected in the field of population， which is the unbalanced development of population. The imbalance of age structure is a prominent manifestation of the current unbalanced population development， in which the reasons for the trend of fewer children are more complicated and the consequences are more severe. This trend not only aggravates the aging population， but also poses a threat to the future population development and national security. In the new development stage， we should focus on structural imbalance， redress the shortcomings that restrict balanced population development， and achieve an appropriate fertility level to help balance population structure through policy responses to the problem of fewer children. At the same time， we will give full play to the role of the working-age population as the backbone of the population structure， promote balanced population development by coordinating with high-quality economic development and promoting balanced population distribution， and help achieve high-quality population development.

Key words： High-quality population development; Long-term balanced population development; Structural balance

The Relationship Between Urban Agglomeration Spatial Network Connections and Long-term Balanced Population Development from the Perspective of High-Quality Development

—An Empirical Analysis Based on the Chengdu-Chongqing Urban Agglomeration

Wang Zhuo

Summary： In the context of a large population size， an essential path for high-quality development in China is promoting the long-term balanced development of the population and implementing regional coordinated development strategies in urban agglomerations. As the “fourth pole” of Chinas economic growth， the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration， despite having a multi-center structure like the Yangtze River Delta， Pearl River Delta， and Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomerations， has a relatively lower spatial compactness， and its core cities have a smaller radiation range compared to those in more developed stages of urban agglomerations. Therefore， in the context of high-quality development， it is necessary to deeply analyze the characteristics of the spatial network structure among cities within the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration and the impact mechanism of the urban agglomerations spatial network structure on the long-term balanced and coordinated development of the population.

This paper uses panel data from 16 cities in the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration from 2006 to 2020， employing the coupling coordination degree model and the modified gravity model to measure the degree of spatial network connections and the level of long-term balanced development of the population in these cities during 2006-2020. It applies the spatial Durbin model to empirically analyze the impact of urban agglomeration spatial network connections on the long-term balanced development of the population and its spatiotemporal heterogeneity and network external effects. The findings reveal that： （1） Urban agglomeration spatial network connections can promote the long-term balanced development of the local population but will form an “agglomeration shadow” around， generating network negative external effects that are not conducive to the long-term balanced development of the surrounding cities population. （2） The spatial network connections of the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration positively affect the long-term balanced development of the population in the dual-core cities of Chengdu and Chongqing， as well as in the three sub-center cities of Mianyang， Yibin， and Luzhou. With the elevation of administrative levels， the city network connections gradually shift from negative external effects， detrimental to the long-term balanced development of the population in the surrounding cities， to positive external effects that promote it. （3） By incorporating different distance threshold weight matrices into the spatial Durbin model for regression， this article explores the distance heterogeneity of urban spatial network external effects， which shows a negative-to-positive， and eventually converging inverse S-shape， forming an “agglomeration shadow” within the 0-100km range， with the 150-200km range being the optimal radius for urban network connections to exert positive external effects. （4） The mediation effect model shows that the enhancement of technological innovation and entrepreneurship activity is a key channel through which urban spatial network connections promote the long-term balanced development of the population.

Based on the conclusions drawn from theoretical and empirical analyses， this paper suggests that we should： （1） implement the development strategy of the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration to construct a “one axis， two belts， dual cores， and three zones” spatial pattern; （2） coordinate the planning of the urban agglomeration， and reasonably arrange the national territorial space. （3） develop and enhance a synergy mechanism for technological innovation to foster the emergence of a cohesive regional innovation ecosystem. （4） refine the population development policy system to inject endogenous momentum into the long-term balanced development of the regional population.

Key words： Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration; Spatial network connections; Long-term balanced population development; High-quality development

Gelaohui Starting from Tiandihui

—An Interpretation of the Writings during the Republic of China about the Origin of Gelaohui

Wang Di

Summary： The writings of several important researchers of secret societies can be roughly divided into two types. The first is the historical metaphor school， which looks for hidden history behind legends and myths. The second is the historical data school， which looks for clues from archives and other documents. In fact， both work in the same direction， that is， these legends and myths of the early Hongmen period are not completely without historical evidence to support them.

In their narratives， there is no doubt about the inheritance relationship between Gelaohui and Tiandihui. The systematic narration of the history of Gelaohui involves a long period of time， many important names， mixed with legends and myths. With so many connections， it is even more difficult to distinguish between truth and myth. The history hidden in myths and legends， alluding to real stories， can be found in many examples in Chinese history. In the narratives of secret societies， there are endless examples. Because they are metaphors， they leave a lot of room for imagination. No one can come up with an explanation that everyone can agree on. After all， there is no direct evidence. But there are traces of the relationship between Gelaohui and Tiandihui.

Gelaohui played an active role in the 1911 Revolution and contributed to the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. Therefore， the history of Gelaohui is actually symbiotic with the discourse of national revolution. Since the beginning of Sun Yat-sens revolution， he had used the power of the secret societies to frequently contact and cooperate with Hongmen， Triad， and Sandianhui overseas. The Hongmen anti-Qing organization gradually shifted from secret to open activities. The history of the origin of the Gelaohui is closely integrated with the propaganda of the revolutionaries. From this， we can see that the national revolution was a turning point in the development of Gelaohui， revealing a very rich history about the origin of this organization.

Using the information and research provided by witnesses and researchers during the Republic of China， we will further understand Gelaohuis revolutionary narrative， nationalist narrative， the self-image shaping of the members， the historical metaphor school， and the historical data school of Gelaohuis origin. Telling of these stories proves that there are a lot of “inventions of tradition” in Hobsbawms concept in Gelaohui history writings， but the history writings have obviously become their identity and the bond of maintaining a close relationship among the members. In this way， it is important to understand how much basis of the stories they told， but why they told their history that way is a question that we need to seriously explore.

Key words：" Origin of Gelaohui; Nationalism; Invention of tradition; Legends and myths

Deng Mann： The First Female Philosopher in China

Huang Yushun

Summary： Deng Mann， also known as “the belle Mann”， was a woman with the surname Mann from the Deng State in the early Spring and Autumn period. She was the daughter of Mann Wuli， a Marquis of Deng， and the sister of Mann Qi， also a Marquis of Deng. She was the wife of Xiong Tong， King Wu of Chu State， and the mother of Xiong Zi， King Wen of Chu State.

As a historical figure in the early Spring and Autumn period， Deng Mann was not only one of the first Chinese philosophers of the Axial Age， but also the first female philosopher in China， because her thoughts already possessed the basic conceptual framework of Chinese philosophy， covering the thoughts of the way of tian （Logos of God） as the metaphysics， the human way as the sub-metaphysics， and the relationship between tian （God） and man. Moreover， she was the first to put forth the following three ideas at the very beginning of the history of Chinese philosophy.

1. The concept of the tian dao （Logos of God）， which is the inevitable law displayed by the God. The term tian here refers to the supreme god， and dao refers to the inevitable law displayed by tian， that is， the expression of the will of the supreme god. The concept of tian dao or “the way of tian” was not found in the ancient classics of the Book of Songs， the Book of Documents， or the Book of Changes before the Spring and Autumn period. It was mentioned in the Spring and Autumn period in the Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu， books far later than the time of Deng Mann. Obviously， the “way of tian” as a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy was first proposed by Deng Mann， at least according to the records in the extant historical literature. This alone is enough to establish Deng Manns position as the first female philosopher in China.

2. The proposition of tian bu jia yi， meaning that God will never tolerate the arrogant and reckless people. Here， yi refers to reckless and arrogant people， while jia means “to tolerate”. Deng Manns belief in the supreme and ancestral gods was not original， but rather a common religious concept of her time. However， the proposition that God will never tolerate the arrogant and reckless people and the idea that it is the way of tian that things will become unstable when developing to a state of full abundance are original creations of Deng Mann.

3. The proposition of tian dao ying dang， which means it is the way of tian （the inevitable law determined by the God） that things will become unstable when developing to a state of full abundance. The term ying here means fullness， overflow， and exhaustion， and generally refers to the state in which things develop to a state of fullness; dang originally refers to the shaking of water， which extends figuratively to the turbulence， instability， and instability of things. This is also an original idea of Deng Manns. Wu Zixu had a similar proposition： it is the way of tian that fullness is bound to ruin， but it was also later than Deng Manns.

In addition to the three pioneering points mentioned above， Deng Mann specifically expressed the political philosophy with “virtue”， “promise keeping” and “punishment” as the core categories， and laid the foundation for this sub-metaphysical political philosophy with the metaphysical belief in tian， which means that one must fear God in order to fulfill human affairs. The aforementioned Deng Manns idea that God will never tolerate the arrogant and reckless people reflects a punitive effect of tian on humans， and also contains a proper attitude of humans， that is， awe， towards tian.

Key words： Deng Mann; Female philosopher; Tian dao; Ren dao; Relationship between tian and man

Making Cultivating “Great Confucians”： Theoretical Preparation for the Integration of Bureaucracy and Confucianism

—A Philosophical Interpretation of “The Achievements of the Confucians” in Xunzi Based on Its Textual Context

Yu Zhiping

Summary： During the emergence of Confucians as a group and the development of" Confucianism as a philosophy in early China， “The Achievements of the Confucians” in the book Xunzi aims to build the image of the “Great Confucians” by searching for ideological resources in the previous sages. It can be regarded as another effort， after “The Conduct of Confucians” in the Book of Rites， of the Confucians to define their social identity and responsibilities， which lifts the Confucian roles of performing rituals and teaching to benefiting the people and governing the world， expanding their stage from residential yards to the courts of kings and emperors.

Confucians never claim to be sages and kings themselves; they only strive to serve as loyal subjects. With sage kings of the past as their best role models， and taking propriety and righteousness as their moral pursuit， true Confucians are able to shine and contribute to social justice and progress， no matter where they are and what position they are holding. The records of “elegant” and “vulgar” Confucians of the Warring States period form a sharp contrast to the “Great Confucians” who can really fulfill the ideal of human-heartedness. Great Confucians follow the way of the present kings， but they are also able to transform and change the reality based on the way of the sage kings of the past. On the one hand， Great Confucians can understand the past with contemporary thinking and methods and address current practical problems， and， on the other hand， they advocate the practice of consistent institution， requiring coherent political， economic， social and military policies to ensure effective and orderly governance of the present kings， without the distraction of former kings.

These goals are difficult to fulfill， unless by sages themselves. According to the standard of Xunzis criteria， only Emperors Yao， Shun， Yu， and King Tang of Shang， Kings Wen and Wu of Zhou can be regarded as Sages， and Duke of Zhou can barely be counted as one of them. Confucius， known only for his words and his talk of virtues， is excluded from the list of Great Confucians. Xunzis classification is conducive to cultivating reserve forces for Confucian school， promoting the bureaucratization of Confucians and the Confucianization of officials. This trend helps shape officials of various levels by regulating their conduct with Confucian morals， preparing for later integration of officialdom and scholarly learning. The impact of this piece in Xunzi on Confucians is general and abstract， and the “Great Confucian” is only a conceptual existence instead of being a concrete and sacred worship. But the textual and philosophical interpretation of this paper is a fresh perspective to look at this subject.

Key words：" “The Achievements of the Confucians”; The Great Confucian; Sages of the past; Following the way of the present kings; Integration of bureaucracy and Confucian learning

On Xunzis “Art of King” and Its Political Confucianism Characteristics

Song Hongbing

Summary：" Xunzis “Art of King” refers to the method and strategy of handling political affairs led by the Sage King according to the political logic based on power and interests. Xunzis concept is based on the “human nature is evil” theory and involves complex political life， reflecting distinct characteristics of political Confucianism. Firstly， the subject of Xunzis “Art of King”， the Sage King， highlights a strong political realist stance of the king as a politician， rather than a moralist image of being gentle， respectful， and frugal. As a politician， as long as his motives and goals are moral， the Sage Kings means must be legitimate. The “Sageness” of the Sage King can provide moral justification for its political means， which subtly opens up an imaginative space for politicians to exercise their power towards Legalism （Fa tradition）. Human political life cannot be separated from the Sage King， and the fundamental logic of the Sage King governing the country lies in the grasp of real interests and the appropriate use of power.

Secondly， Xunzis “Art of King” seeks to enhance the ability to govern the country， emphasizing that the Sage King must possess political thinking， understand how to analyze political life from a perspective of interests， and know how to use his power to achieve his political goals. He must also have a keen political insight， decisive ability in killing based on objective facts， and wise leadership and the ability to control complex situations. On the one hand， the Sage King emphasizes the importance of “honoring rituals and valuing the law” rather than cultivating ones character， and mainly relies on heteronomy rather than self-discipline to govern the country. On the other hand， the Sage King is able to maintain his integrity with propriety， restrain his own desires， set an example in his behavior， possess moral appeal and political influence， and win the hearts and minds of the people and universal support of the world.

Finally， Xunzis “Art of King” is rooted in the survival and development of the country. The Sage King should always attach importance to the fundamental position of military and economic strength， and strive to mobilize the enthusiasm of the people to achieve national prosperity and strength. Xunzis strong army was not about using excessive military force to attack other countries， but about prohibiting violence and eliminating evil. Hiss prosperity of the country is not about the country being rich and the people being poor， but about both the people" and the country being rich. In the pursuit of prosperity and development for the survival and development of the country， Xunzi always emphasized the importance of military and economic strength， which is particularly characterized by realistic political thinking in the context of pre-Qin Confucianism. The mobilization of the peoples enthusiasm by the Sage King to achieve the prosperity of the country and the strengthening of the army also constitutes the most essential connotation of Xunzis “Art of King”. To sum up， Xunzis “Art of King” relies on the Sage King to achieve the cause of emperors in a political way， which reflects the essential characteristics of Xunzis political Confucianism.

Key words：" Xunzi， Art of King; Political Confucianism; Politician

Literature Making Landscape： Su Shis Literary Shaping of Places in Song China

Li Gui

Summary： The traditional authoritative theory in China regarding the relationship between literature and geography is “l(fā)andscape helping literature”. But from the Mid-Tang dynasty， there was also a new saying of “l(fā)iterature making landscape”. The literati of the Song dynasty have a more conscious understanding of the important role of literature in shaping places： they believe that it is human writing that transforms the geographical environment from a material space into a place full of cultural and historical significance. Modern Western cultural geographers also hold a similar view， saying that literary works cannot be simply seen as descriptions of certain regions and places; often it is literary works that help create these places. The emergence of the theory of “l(fā)iterature making landscape” from Mid-Tang to Song is closely related to the developed geographical writing in Tang and Song literature， and Su Shi can be regarded as an outstanding representative in this field.

Su Shis writings on the Western Shu region （now Western Sichuan） blend firsthand observations and comparisons of memories， resulting in a fusion of realism， reminiscence， and imagination. They reshaped the geography of the Western Shu region， projected individual beliefs， and influenced the remarking of its geography by later generations. The Hangzhou writings of Su Shi include four levels： the urban Hangzhou， its suburban and rural areas， Hangzhou in the eastern and western Zhejiang regions， and Hangzhou in the East Asian waters， making Hangzhous image structured， systematic， finalized， and internationalized. Su Shi adhered to his initial aspirations and pursued freedom， always keeping a distance from the mainstream of the capital. The Huaiyuanyi Hotel and the National Supervision Prison have special significance in his capital writings. Su Shis Huangzhou writing has both realistic and fictional elements， and the “Dongpo” （including “Xuetang”） and “Red Cliff” are new spaces created in his literary works， ultimately shaping them as the spiritual highlands of Chinese culture. Su Shi names the West Lake in Huizhou， builds the image of Huizhou， and vindicates Lingnan of its bad reputation. With his own geographical perception， Su Shi dispels the discriminatory prejudice imposed on Hainan for thousands of years， creating its new image of a fantastic island with harmonious relationship between the Li and Han people， where people enjoy longevity， majestic sea and sky landscapes， and infinite spring season.

As a result， Su Shis literary writings have shaped many places in Song China， depicting geographical features， constructing local images， creating conceptual spaces， projecting psychological structures， defending diversity and tolerance， reflecting the spatial dimensions of the historical process of Song China and how history is embedded in space. Su Shis works have attracted countless readers. Through his writings， people can see a spatialized， localized， and decentralized Song dynasty. Even if the land is changing， literature， through memory and imagination， helps make it immortal and create new landmarks. The theory of “l(fā)iterature making landscape” reveals a unique feature and achievement of traditional Chinese literature.

Key words：" Literature making landscape; Su Shi; Song China; Shaping of places; Spatial dimensions of history

Maoduns Midnight： National Bourgeoisie or Not， Global or Local Economic Crisis？

Tuo Jianing

Summary：" By close reading， this paper explores Maoduns Midnight， trying to find the difference between the reason of Wu Sunfus failure and the cause behind the dilemmas of Chinese national industry， which could not be simply attributed to the direct impact of the Great Depression.

The dilemma of Wu Sunfus Yuhua Factory and factories in Yizhong Company is caused by three reasons in three “battlefronts”： Civil War in Central China， the conflict between Chinese industry and finance， and the strikes. Firstly， the failure of Wu Sunfu in his last battle in the market of government bonds is mainly caused by the betrayal of his brother-in-law Du Zhuzhai， having nothing to do with the development of industry. Secondly， the factories of Yizhong Company are mainly dependent on the market of hinterland China but not the international market， so their business is affected by the transportation interruption caused by the Civil War in Central China. Without adequate circulating fund in the end， these factories are transferred to Japanese banks or Brinish banks. Lastly， Wu Sunfus Yuhua Factory has large orders before the price of silk is reduced in the Great Depression. In this novel， there is neither description of the impact of the Great Depression in Europe and America on Yuhua Factory nor that of the competition of Japanese factories. However， dozens of chapters are written to describe how Wu Sunfu tries to avoid the loss for his late delivery of goods by quashing the strikes led by the CCP. At the end of the novel， though Yuhua Factory is going to stop for Wus disanimation for his failure on financial speculation， the factory has neither been impawned nor closed down， as Wu Sunfu has quashed the strikes successfully with the help of his subordinate Tu Weiyue.

The problem of Chinas capitalism in Midnight is the depression of industry under developed finance with the devaluation. Finaly in this novel， the industrialists become compradors， thus the nationality of national bourgeoisie is questioned. Internal problems such as the Wang-Chiang dispute during the Civil War in Central China， the Li Li-san Line of CCP， and so on have been described in more detail than the global economic crises， which is later explained by Maodun as “Intentional Fallacy”. Rereading novels such as Midnight in the perspective of economic history is to find the mind-changing process of left intellectuals such as Maodun and Qu Qiubai instead of taking the novel as a record of historical source.

Key words：" Maodun; Midnight; National industry; National bourgeoisie; Great Depression

A Study of the Rectification of Names in Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras

Fang Yili

Summary：" Zhengming， or" the Rectification of Names， a concept from Confucian philosophy， is a significant issue in the history of Buddhist scripture translation from about 148 AD to 1111 AD. Different from a political practice， which aims at engaging with the world and advocates proper naming and categorization of things in a way that reflects their moral prescriptivist impact， the Rectification of Names in translating the Buddhist scriptures is an inter-lingual practice， which is specifically associated with the construction of the “Authentic Dharma” in China by translating accurately and appropriately.

In terms of the content， the issue of the Rectification of the Names in Buddhist scriptures can be reviewed from various aspects， including the translation of the sutra names and re-interpretation of the Buddhism thoughts implied in the scriptures. The former， focused on the establishment of the sutra names in Chinese， intends to ensure the completeness of the content of newly translated scriptures and emphasizes that the “Authentic Dharma” is based only on the words of the Buddha. The latter， including creating the new signified or intentionally omitting content that the Buddhist scholars do not wish to highlight， intends to eliminate inauthentic Buddhist thoughts， and reestablish the “Authentic Dharma” of the Buddhist scriptures in China. Thus the Rectification of Names in Buddhist scriptures involves issues of understanding the meaning at different levels， such as the “Dharma” between the lines of the Buddhist scriptures， the re-narrated Dharma preached by Buddhas disciples， and the insights of the translators. It also deals with balancing the personal language habits of the principal foreign translators and the normative procedures of the translation in the ancient translation workshops. In this sense， translation is no longer a meaning transference but an integration of interpretations and adjustments. Buddhist scholars， who are responsible for translations， need to accurately understand and interpret the Buddhist philosophy，" while adapting to different thoughts and doctrines， such as Confucianism， Daoism， and other schools， to make Buddhism more acceptable to Buddhist believers in ancient China. In this process， the Rectification of Names going beyond the pure linguistic enterprises intermingled with Chinese， Sanskrit， and some ethnic languages highlights the legitimacy and authenticity of Chinese Buddhism.

Based on an exhaustive exploration of the intellectual history of Chinese Buddhism， this article revisits the issue of the Rectification of Names in the translation of Buddhist scriptures" by analyzing important problems such as the correspondence between names and reality in sutra names， the selections and" meanings in names， and the interpretation of names and their relative characteristics. It further examines the disputes between the “Authentic Dharma” and “Inauthentic Dharma” in the translation of Buddhist scriptures and reveals the efforts of translators in labeling Chinese-translated Buddhist scriptures as the authentic Dharma and being accepted by Chinese audiences. Exploring the complexity of the Rectification of Names in" Buddhist scriptures translation can not only illustrate how Buddhism， as a new belief and knowledge system， was introduced from South-East Asia and evolved in China， but also reveal the convergence and reconciliation of different thoughts such as Confucianism， Buddhism， and Daoism in the process of translation.

Key words： Name; Rectification of names; Translation of names; Chinese translation of Budhhist sutras; Authentic Dharma

On the Opposite Litigation Structure in Qing Counties and Prefectures

Deng Jianpeng

Summary：" In Qing dynasty， suppressing litigation and litigiousness became the contradictory structure in counties and prefectures. Litigiousness was incompatible with Confucian ideology. Bureaucratic groups ignored the necessity of the reform of the grassroots judicial system to respond to social changes. The monarchs and ministers had long been obsessed with the empty discourse of governing the country by virtue and moral education under the Confucian ideology， and expected officials with noble moral character and strong ability to bring good judicial governance. The huge negative effect was that， in order to deal with the litigation， the bureaucratic group had excessive expectations for “able people” and reduced the motivation of the politicians to think about the institutional reform. The rigid ideology could not recognize that private interests enjoyed a legitimate status， let alone how to guide the legitimate interests. Suppressed by the high-profile official discourse， the private interests were distorted in the official documents and the legal system， and it was difficult to get a positive protection. This made the “deadlock” of suppressing litigation and litigiousness survive for a long time before the legal reform in late Qing dynasty.

In Qing dynasty， power was highly centralized at county and prefectural levels， and only the magistrates and prefects were legally allowed to hear cases. The number of magistrates and prefects had been fixed for a long time， but the population had increased year by year， prompting local officials to “suppress litigation”. The imperial court gave the magistrates and prefects full authority to collecting taxes， keeping public security and hearing cases， and brought great pressure to them at the same time， which eventually became unbearable. Therefore， most magistrates and prefects could not deal with a large number of lawsuits.

The statutory low tax system was another important reason for the long-term limited local trial resources， and the local officials generally did not have the full financial resources to deal with the litigation. Without special financial subsidies to the judicial trials from the imperial court， the local governments even had to raise funds for handling cases by themselves， resulting in serious judicial drawbacks. The rigid tax customization and the stubborn thinking of abiding by the ancestral system constituted the ideological obstacles of the emperors. This rigid fiscal system could not effectively cope with a society of a population several times larger than before. In the middle and late Qing period， the magistrates and prefects generally chose “officially approved mediation by the parties involved” instead of a formal trial to reduce the cost of yamen.

Suppressing litigation and litigiousness are the contradiction in the county and prefectural litigation system， which had emerged in Ming dynasty. By the Qing period， this contradiction had been significantly aggravated. By advocating “no litigation” and condemning “l(fā)itigiousness”， the Qing court suppressed the legitimacy of civil litigation， and the parties involved were forced to take “l(fā)itigiousness” means， such as exaggeration and 1 accusation， which often triggered more seemingly serious litigation. The official suppression of litigation stimulated the public to behave vigorously， which led to more severe official suppression; this contradictory situation existed in Qing society for long time. Litigiousness strengthened the necessity of the official consciousness of suppressing litigation， which deprived litigation of its legitimacy in the society， but the demand for resolving civil disputes represented by litigiousness was contrary to the official condemnation of litigation as a means for resolving disputes among the public.

Generally speaking， the Qing official moral evaluation of litigation unjustified the protection of private interests， covering up the lack of governance ability of local bureaucrats， and its ignorance of the rigid defects of its legal system led it to attribute the judicial dilemma to the corruption of the civil customs and morality. Therefore， suppressing litigation and litigiousness constituted the long-term contradictory structure of litigation in Qing counties and prefectures， which gradually intensified peoples disappointment of the yamen and eventually became one of the causes of the dynastic crisis.

Key words：" Condemning litigation; Litigiousness; Litigation structure; Qing dynasty; Counties and prefectures

From Shows of Humiliation to Self-Rehabilitation： An Examination of Jingji in the Qing Dynasty

Jiang Han

Summary：" The term “Jingji”（警跡） originated from “Jingji”（景跡）， which was originally a term related to the assessment of officials. The Qings system of Shouchong Jingji （收充警跡）was directly derived from the provision of “Qichu Cizi”（起除刺字）in the Ming Law. In the early Qing period， the Jingji system consisted of two main aspects： firstly， criminals with tattoos were included in a special household register， which changed the status of criminals into untouchables; secondly， by arresting thieves， the untouchables could have their tattoos removed and their status changed. Specifically， it is likely that the early Qing dynasty continued the dual-track system of the Ming dynasty， whereby criminals could have their status restored and their tattoos cleared through several years of no faults or by apprehending thieves. By the reign of Qianlong， the legitimacy of Jingji was confirmed through regulations， but the general expression made it difficult to apply it consistently in judicial practice.

This principal ordinance remained in force until 1839， when it was revised and the Ministry of Penalty instituted a single-track program. This means that criminals must not only fulfill the requirement of years without a crime， but also the requirement of the number of thieves apprehended， in order to be restored to their identity and removed from the sting. As far as local practice is concerned， it is divided into two periods before and after 1839. Before 1839， Jingji had to be implemented in the southern provinces in the form of a two-track system. Zhejiang and other provinces were actively engaged in local legislation to enhance the operability of Jingji， and the relevant laws showed local variations while forming a relatively consistent pattern. After 1839， although the Ministry of Penalty established a single-track program，the framers of the regulations underestimated the complexity of judicial practice， and the application of the regulations was not optimistic in the face of local realities. In 1883， a local governor reflected on the criteria for starting and removing barbed characters in the law and proposed changes to the single-track system. The provincial judge of Zhili recognized the officers idea， but his proposal to change the law was not adopted. At the same time， the provincial judge suggested that it could be handled in accordance with Daqinglv Jizhu（大清律輯注）. This was in effect an endorsement of the officials proposal for a single-track system. As can be seen from the individual cases， the 1839 law was different from the two-track system that had been in place since the early Qing dynasty， which largely contributed to the difficulty of applying the law at the local level. This reflects the local adaptation and transformation of Jingji and the enduring influence of path dependence in the process of institutional change.

In the middle and late Qing period， Jingji was gradually abolished. One of the reasons for this is the lack of independence in its operation. The operation of Jingji was predicated on the stabbing penalty， which was difficult to carry out in the mid-to-late Qing dynasty， directly affecting the implementation of the punishment. Second， with this institution， the control and utilization of criminals must be balanced between management constraints and the capture of thieves， which involved the investment and maintenance of resources， a severe challenge for the Qing counties and prefectures. Thirdly， Jingji had not been very effective in rehabilitating thieves and criminals， and had been unable to solve the problem of recidivism. All these defects had ultimately led to a “no-way-out” situation.

Key words： Removal of tattoos; Shouchong Jingji; Using thieves to catch thieves

An Analytical Framework of Responding to Major Public Emergencies Based on Chinas National Governance System

Cai Qiurong

Summary：" How well a system responds to major public emergencies is once again “certified” as a reliable criterion for examining a national system， especially its governance system. Researchers have conducted numerous effective studies from different perspectives. However， few researchers have placed the national response to major public emergencies within the analytical framework of the “governance system” from a middle-range perspective. This paper aims to construct a theoretical analytical framework for the national governance system to respond to major public emergencies. Positioned from a national governance perspective， it seeks to provide insights into “how the nation （China） responds to major public emergencies through its governance system”. Through an integration of relevant theories， it takes the governance system as an overall concept in an analytical sense， and proposes an analytical framework—“Structure-Mechanism-Function”—for explaining the national governance system in responding to major public emergencies.

This framework explores how the interplay of factors at the levels of structure， mechanism and function collectively influences the operation of the governance system. The “structure” symbolizes the relational characterization of the system， establishing the organizational foundation and action framework for governance system operations. The “mechanism” unveils the processes through which “structure” transforms into “functions” during governance system operations， while the “function” embodies the outcomes generated by the inherent “structure” in the “mechanism”， feeding back into both “structure” and “mechanism”. Notably， functional outcomes encompass explicit （positive） functions and potential negative functions. The former is showcased in the procedural mechanisms， reflecting the core functions of the governance system， while the latter remains latent in the structure and mechanism， contributing to functional attenuation issues. Specifically： （1） At the “structure” level， attention is directed towards the foundation and framework of the national response to major public emergencies， encompassing structures of state-society relations， central-local relations， and government-market relations.（2） The focus at the “mechanism” level is on the ways and processes of the national response to a major epidemic and the （positive） functional outcomes it presents， involving mechanisms of the decision-making process， mechanisms of the implementation process， and mechanisms of the integration process that ensure consistent coherence between the two. （3） The “function” level is anchored in the negative results and effect toward the national response to major public emergencies. First of all， it is necessary to analyze the negative function results of governance system with weakened functions in response to major public emergencies from the perspective of structure and mechanism. Subsequently， it further explores the “results” of functionally observable objective results under complex uncertainty risk society： functional requirements. Finally， the governance system is optimized by targeting negative functional results and functional demand-oriented feeder structures and mechanisms.

This analytical framework systematically addresses three progressively explored inquiries： relational structures， process mechanisms， and functional pathways. Its application enhances our comprehension of Chinas emergency management system concerning major public emergencies and sheds light on the capabilities or institutional advantages of the routine systems when confronted with extraordinary circumstances. Furthermore， it contributes to enriching practical examples in the ongoing modernization research of national governance systems and governance capabilities.

Key words：" Major public emergencies; Governance system; Structure-Mechanism-Function; Emergency management

China International Commercial Court in the Context of Global Governance Innovation： Functions and Prospects for Development

Lin Fuchen

Summary：" The world economic and trade order is currently undergoing complex and profound changes， necessitating a collective response from all countries. In this context， the effective resolution of international commercial disputes has become a crucial aspect of international competition and cooperation. As the top-level design of each country in the world， the International Commercial Court （ICC） plays a vital role in the global governance system.

The institutional positioning of the ICC encompasses a “dual purpose” of maintaining and shaping the international economic and trade governance structure. On the one hand， each countrys response to the objective needs of the international community has led to the responsive purpose of the ICC to maintain and safeguard the international economic and trade order. On the other hand， the countrys subjective pursuit of shaping the economic and trade governance system has given rise to the constructive purpose of the ICC in shaping the international economic and trade governance system. Driven by the responsive purpose of safeguarding the international economic and trade system， internationalization is the natural appearance that ICC should display. The pursuit of the constructive purpose of shaping the international economic and trade governance structure has led to the decision that ICC， while serving the international community， should strive to realize the special features of the system. At the same time， the pursuit of characteristics should be premised on the international application of the system.

Upon reviewing the current positioning and operational system of the China International Commercial Court （CICC）， it is evident that CICC has been predominantly on responsive purposes， with insufficient attention to constructive purposes. This imbalance has resulted in limitations within the operational system. At the internationalization level， the participation of foreigners in litigation is constrained， and CICC lacks appeal remedies. Additionally， the enforcement of mediation agreements lacks convenience， and CICCs innovation in the field of judicial protection of arbitration is limited. In terms of characteristics， the “mediation+litigation” dispute resolution model struggles to meet the demands of the international commercial mediation market， and the scope of the Committee of Experts needs to be broadened. Moreover， the electronic construction of courts does not fully cover mediation and arbitration.

Moving forward， the CICC should strive to harmonize the “dual purpose” of responsiveness and constructiveness， emphasize its global orientation， and actively engage in the governance of global economic and trade rules. To enhance CICC internationalization， efforts should be made to increase the participation of foreigners in litigation and revamp the relief system. Furthermore， at the international commercial diversified dispute resolution level， the integration of mediation and litigation should be promoted. Simultaneously， the CICC should enhance the international applicability of the “mediation+litigation” dispute resolution process， expand the functions of the Committee of Experts， uphold an Activist Judiciary stance， and embark on the electronic， networked， and intelligent construction of judicial data. By establishing a comprehensive and electronic international commercial diversified dispute resolution platform， the CICC can showcase Chinas judicial wisdom on the global stage.

Key words：" Global governance innovation; Constructivism; Belt amp; Road Initiative; China International Commercial Court

（英文編校：金學(xué)勤）