摘要:肺癌居全國(guó)惡性腫瘤發(fā)病第一位,而吸煙又是肺癌的重要致病因子。實(shí)驗(yàn)研究表明,在正常狀態(tài)下,LOX與bFGF、ANG處于動(dòng)態(tài)平衡,一旦出現(xiàn)失衡,就會(huì)產(chǎn)生病變。吸煙引起LOX的mRNA、蛋白質(zhì)和催化活性下調(diào)節(jié),導(dǎo)致腫瘤抑制子(LOX)和腫瘤促進(jìn)子(bFGF、ANG)失衡。同時(shí)上調(diào)細(xì)胞巰基改變LOX的分子結(jié)構(gòu)和清除LOX協(xié)同因子,銅離子,進(jìn)一步加劇了LOX損傷,這些表型變化引起細(xì)胞和血管增殖的失控,加速了腫瘤的生長(zhǎng)和進(jìn)展。進(jìn)而,腫瘤過(guò)度生長(zhǎng)引起細(xì)胞血供缺失,產(chǎn)生低氧狀態(tài),啟動(dòng)了癌上皮向間皮轉(zhuǎn)化(EMT)。低氧引起的LOX和其底物的上調(diào),為腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移提供了一類信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)機(jī)制。
關(guān)鍵詞:賴氨酰氧化酶;吸煙;肺癌;上皮-間皮細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)化;細(xì)胞巰基
據(jù)《2012中國(guó)腫瘤登記年報(bào)》報(bào)告,全國(guó)每年新發(fā)腫瘤病例約312萬(wàn)例,平均8550人/d,6人/min被診斷為惡性腫瘤。從病種看,居全國(guó)惡性腫瘤發(fā)病第一位的是肺癌,居全國(guó)惡性腫瘤死亡之首,其次為肝癌、胃癌、食管癌和結(jié)直腸癌。前10位惡性腫瘤死亡率占全部惡性腫瘤死亡率的84.27%。死亡率最高者男女均為肺癌。全國(guó)調(diào)查資料預(yù)測(cè),癌癥繼續(xù)增加的主要原因之一是吸煙率增高。
吸煙與肺癌:早在2004年Leischow 等[1]報(bào)道,全球每年有77.2萬(wàn)男性和26.5萬(wàn)女性的新生肺癌是由吸煙引起的,約500萬(wàn)人因吸煙和暴露于煙環(huán)境而早逝。香煙霧是人類肺疾病的最重要的致病因子,它可以引起87%的肺癌死亡率和82%的慢性阻塞性肺病(COPD)死亡率。這是因?yàn)橄銦熿F含有4800多種不同的毒性物質(zhì),包括致癌物(例如,尼古丁衍生物NNK)、重金屬(例如,鎘)、氧化物等,它們能夠獨(dú)自或協(xié)同作用引起肺癌等肺疾病發(fā)生[2-3]。戒煙降低肺腫瘤的發(fā)生率,也從另一個(gè)側(cè)面表明了表明吸煙是肺癌的重要致病因子[4]。煙草中含有一種特殊的尼古丁衍生物,稱之為4甲基亞硝胺-1-(3吡啶)-1-丁酮(NNK),現(xiàn)已證明它對(duì)嚙齒類動(dòng)物如大鼠是一種強(qiáng)致癌劑[5]。鎘(Cadmium,Cd)是一種毒性重金屬,對(duì)人來(lái)說(shuō)它沒(méi)有任何生物學(xué)價(jià)值,但是煙草能從土壤中吸收并濃縮游離鎘,所以除職業(yè)性接觸外,吸煙是人的主要鎘污染源[4-6]。肺臟,作為香煙霧的主要靶器官,能吸收并積蓄超常量的鎘。由于鎘在肺臟的生物半衰期可以高達(dá)9.4年[6],且吸煙者的肺部鎘水平會(huì)比非吸煙者要高出7.5倍[7],故它可以作為吸煙的標(biāo)記物。由于鎘誘發(fā)肺癌,它被國(guó)際腫瘤研究學(xué)會(huì)(IARC)定為一級(jí)致癌物[6]。雖已知尼古丁衍生物NNK通過(guò)甲基化[8]損傷DNA,而鎘是非基因毒性致癌物[6],但他們的致癌機(jī)制至今尚未完全闡明,需進(jìn)一步深入研究。
賴氨酰氧化酶(Lysyl oxidase,LOX)與癌: LOX是一種成纖維細(xì)胞分泌的銅依賴性酶,通過(guò)氧化多肽中賴氨酸殘基,引起膠原蛋白、彈性蛋白和組蛋白的共價(jià)交聯(lián),進(jìn)而形成不溶性的纖維或聚合物以穩(wěn)定細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)(Extra cellular matrix,ECM)和細(xì)胞核,在細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)形成和組織修復(fù)中起著核心性的作用[9-10]。LOX含有兩個(gè)活性基團(tuán):銅和賴氨酰酪氨酸基醌(LTQ)。銅是在高爾基體中參入賴氨酰氧化酶原,并與賴氨酰氧化酶原一起進(jìn)入分泌小泡,分泌出細(xì)胞。另一個(gè)活性基團(tuán)LTQ的形成也發(fā)生在高爾基體內(nèi),并且只有在銅結(jié)合到賴氨酰氧化酶原上之后才能形成此結(jié)構(gòu),銅催化位于LOX活性中心的酪氨酸殘基形成2,4,5-三氧苯丙氨酸(TOPA),此結(jié)構(gòu)再與LOX 活性中心的賴氨酸殘基反應(yīng)形成LTQ。因此,銅不僅是LOX的一個(gè)活性集團(tuán),而且還是形成另一個(gè)活性集團(tuán)所必需的因素。換言之,銅是人體必需的微量元素之一,是LOX的重要輔基,只有與銅結(jié)合的LOX才具有活性。LOX是通過(guò)活性中心的組氨酸殘基結(jié)合二價(jià)銅的[9]。純化了的牛LOX活性會(huì)被金屬螯合劑如α,α-聯(lián)吡啶所明顯抑制[11],但人類LOX分子由于含有10個(gè)半胱氨酸殘基組成5個(gè)二硫鍵,所以對(duì)維持LOX的分子結(jié)構(gòu)和催化功能有著重要作用[9],然而香煙中的某些成分卻可以顯著地干擾細(xì)胞巰基內(nèi)環(huán)境和銅代謝[12-14]。LOX除了可以作用于彈性蛋白和膠原蛋白外,它還能氧化很多等電點(diǎn)大于8的球蛋白賴氨酸殘基,如堿性成纖維細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子(Basic fibroblast growth factor,bFGF)和血管生長(zhǎng)素(Angiogenin,ANG) [15]。因?yàn)槟[瘤生長(zhǎng)需要生長(zhǎng)因子的刺激和血供,所以bFGF 和ANG 又被稱為腫瘤的促進(jìn)子。LOX則可通過(guò)氧化bFGF起到抑制對(duì)細(xì)胞有絲分裂活性的作用[15],因此LOX具有調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞增殖的作用。
LOX在癌瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展過(guò)程中具有雙重作用,既是腫瘤的抑制子,也是腫瘤的促進(jìn)子。LOX是一種腫瘤抑制子由以下多個(gè)實(shí)驗(yàn)研究所證實(shí):①LOX能通過(guò)拮抗致癌基因蛋白H-ras而起到抑制腫瘤的發(fā)生[16];②在許多人類的自發(fā)性癌癥中已發(fā)現(xiàn)有LOX表達(dá)的缺失[10];③在很多肺癌細(xì)胞系中,LOX mRNA表達(dá)水平低下[17];④人類支氣管源性肺癌從1期進(jìn)展到5期時(shí),LOX mRNA和蛋白表達(dá)顯示出3~4倍的降低[18];⑤純化的LOX通過(guò)滅活某些生長(zhǎng)因子如bGFG和ANG,可以起到抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞增殖的作用[15];⑥LOX原酶和LOX前肽通過(guò)抑制BCL-2阻抑肺細(xì)胞間變[17];⑦LOX可以抑制組蛋白H1和H2磷酸化[19-21];⑧B-氨基丙腈(BAPN)可以抑制LOX活性顯著提高染色體的穩(wěn)定性[21]。因此,LOX抑制腫瘤的關(guān)鍵機(jī)制可能是調(diào)節(jié)癌基因的表達(dá)、滅活生長(zhǎng)因子、穩(wěn)定核結(jié)構(gòu)蛋白,進(jìn)而保持了染色體和核的穩(wěn)定性。LOX是一種腫瘤促進(jìn)子由以下研究證實(shí):①在缺氧狀態(tài)下,高水平的LOX表達(dá)會(huì)促進(jìn)癌瘤轉(zhuǎn)移[22]。這是因?yàn)長(zhǎng)OX具有化學(xué)趨化活性[23],作為一種細(xì)胞外信號(hào),它刺激應(yīng)激性纖維基質(zhì)構(gòu)成因而促腫瘤細(xì)胞活動(dòng)和遷移;②LOX可能通過(guò)促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞的遷移和異質(zhì)黏附能力,降低其同質(zhì)黏附能力,促進(jìn)腫瘤的轉(zhuǎn)移[24]。
低氧與癌:哺乳動(dòng)物有氧代謝所需要的氧濃度為40~60mmHg,在生理和病理狀態(tài)下,氧氣濃度減少,低于正常值(40~60mmHg)則稱為低氧。缺氧應(yīng)答基因的啟動(dòng)子(promoter)含有\(zhòng)"缺氧應(yīng)答原件(HRE)\",其中心序列是5'-RCGTG-3',但在大多數(shù)情況下是5'-ACGTG-3'[25]。目前,在100多種哺乳類基因的啟動(dòng)子區(qū)域中都已發(fā)現(xiàn)了缺氧應(yīng)答原件。這些基因調(diào)控紅細(xì)胞生成、糖酵解、血管生成、腫瘤發(fā)生和其他生物過(guò)程[26-27]。LOX基因攜有活性HREs,因此對(duì)缺氧有高反應(yīng)性[10,28-29]。缺氧誘導(dǎo)因子-1(hypoxia inducible factor 1,HIF-1)是一種隨細(xì)胞內(nèi)氧濃度而變化并調(diào)節(jié)基因表達(dá)的轉(zhuǎn)錄激活因子,它由一個(gè)β結(jié)構(gòu)亞基和一個(gè)α功能亞基構(gòu)成,α亞基的表達(dá)有賴于細(xì)胞內(nèi)的氧濃度[25]。在正常含氧細(xì)胞內(nèi),主要是HIF-1β表達(dá)而HIF-1α水平很低。一旦缺氧,HIF-1α被上調(diào),轉(zhuǎn)位進(jìn)入細(xì)胞核,與HIF-1β組成二聚體,然后與HREs結(jié)合,激活低氧應(yīng)答基因[25,30]。因此,HIF-1α是一缺氧生物學(xué)的標(biāo)記物。肺實(shí)體瘤如非小細(xì)胞肺癌常伴缺氧狀態(tài)。高表達(dá)LOX的腫瘤與低表達(dá)LOX的腫瘤相比,前者生存率更低[31]。最近,低氧誘導(dǎo)的上皮-間皮細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)化(Epithelial mesenchymal transition,EMT)已經(jīng)在肺腫瘤發(fā)生的模型中被證實(shí)[32-33],由于LOX活性是位于細(xì)胞核內(nèi),它作為一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)的信號(hào)能夠調(diào)節(jié)其底物的表達(dá)[9],所以低氧誘發(fā)LOX和其底物的上調(diào)伴隨著癌上皮向間皮轉(zhuǎn)化可能是促腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移的重要機(jī)制。
基于上述之研究發(fā)現(xiàn),完全有理由提出了以下假設(shè):吸煙引起LOX的mRNA、蛋白質(zhì)和催化活性下調(diào)節(jié),導(dǎo)致腫瘤抑制子(LOX)和腫瘤促進(jìn)子(bFGF、ANG)失衡。同時(shí)上調(diào)細(xì)胞巰基改變LOX的分子結(jié)構(gòu)和清除LOX協(xié)同因子,銅離子,進(jìn)一步加劇了LOX損傷,這些表型變化引起細(xì)胞和血管增殖的失控,加速了腫瘤的生長(zhǎng)和進(jìn)展。進(jìn)而,腫瘤過(guò)度生長(zhǎng)引起細(xì)胞血供缺失,產(chǎn)生低氧狀態(tài),啟動(dòng)了癌上皮向間皮轉(zhuǎn)化(EMT)。低氧引起的LOX和其底物的上調(diào),為腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移提供了一類信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)機(jī)制。
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