吶喊與哀歌：旅行中的夜鶯—《夜鶯》月刊（1936）

吳 航

（香港科技大學(xué)）

吶喊與哀歌：旅行中的夜鶯—《夜鶯》月刊（1936）

吳 航

（香港科技大學(xué)）

《夜鶯》（1936）是抗日戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間的上海左翼雜志。這篇文章以《夜鶯》月刊為重心，旨在比較夜鶯的隱喻在西方文學(xué)傳統(tǒng)和中國(guó)抗戰(zhàn)語(yǔ)境中的異同。本文指出，夜鶯的歌聲在濟(jì)慈在《夜鶯頌》中是愛(ài)的哀歌亦是對(duì)于自然的贊美。然而在《夜鶯》雜志中，夜鶯的歌聲被左翼知識(shí)分子召喚成了大眾人民為了中國(guó)勝利的吶喊。吶喊這一意象在戰(zhàn)時(shí)的中國(guó)十分常見(jiàn)，魯迅和李樺的作品都有提及。經(jīng)由文本細(xì)讀，本文認(rèn)為旅行中的吶喊夜鶯亦展示了它和海燕的親緣關(guān)系，經(jīng)由高爾基的影響，海燕也被認(rèn)為是風(fēng)暴中的勝利預(yù)言者。吶喊的夜鶯這一象征與其說(shuō)是英國(guó)浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的子禽，不如說(shuō)是社會(huì)主義現(xiàn)實(shí)主義風(fēng)格的后代。在《夜鶯》雜志的例子里，夜鶯形象的變形展示了動(dòng)物的旅行如何使得它在新的語(yǔ)境里尋求到不同的表述。

《夜鶯》月刊；文本旅行；英國(guó)浪漫主義；左翼文學(xué)

Notes on Author: Hang Wu， M.Phil. is a graduate student in the School of Humanities and Social Science at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Her areas of interests include Modern and Contemporary Chinese literature， visual culture and traveling writing and theory.

“Travelling” have gained increasing popularity as a literary buzzword in recent years. Sightseeing， border crossing， and encounters with strangers have become an essential part of people’s everyday life. Knowledge and information gained through books， news and social media are also transmitted so rapidly that we can hardly imagine how the world was decades ago. In the field of cultural criticism，many scholars have theorized “travel” from various perspectives. Edward Said provides one of the most influential articulations on traveling. By examining Lucien Goldmann and Raymond Williams’ discussion on Georg Lukacs’ theory of reification， Said argues that Lukacs’ theory has been tamed and institutionalized in new contexts， and he proposes that the theory travels spatially and temporally； it is modified to situate itself in new contexts.

For some other scholars， the discourse of travel is gendered. In Janet Wolff ’s argument， Said and some — male — scholars tend to discuss the metaphor of travel from a male perspective. For example， they usually focus their research on males’travel. Hence their works tend to exclude women and leads to an “androcentric tendency” in a theory.Eric Leed also coins the term “spermatic journey” to argue that the heroic traveler， which is stimulated by the reproductive impulse， is a man archetype in traveling literature.In attempting to free the term “travel” from the history of European expansion， bourgeois voyager， white-male， and heroic practices，Clifford counts women， migrant labors， immigrations， and non-white people as travelers.

However， animals， as the otherness of human being， are still excluded from the discourse of travel. Hardly is there any study tries to theorize traveling animal inprevious scholarship. Hence， this paper will deliberate on the issue of traveling animals by drawing attention to the nightingale， the known-to-all animal that has travelled from Western literary classics to modern Chinese literature through translations and rewritings.

In this paper， in an attempt to unveil how the nightingale’s image has been changed in its travelling from West to East， I compare the various representations of it in different cultures and contexts. I will firstly explore the original classics concerning the nightingale in Western literature and their translations in Chinese in the 1920s. For example， “Ode to a Nightingale” （1819） by John Keats and Xu Zhimo’s translation of this poem. Then I will deliberate on the leftist periodical Nightingale Magazine （1936） and examine the rewriting of the nightingale in this magazine. Most importantly， I will take the socio-historical background into consideration， since the Nightingale Magazine was produced during wartime.

This research argues that the nightingale was culturally appropriated by Chinese intellectuals to advocate for revolution and rebirth in a ruined country. In the Nightingale Magazine， its voice transformed from the “voice of the nature” in John Keats’ sense to the “outcry” of the masses. In addition， the transformation of the nightingale during a time of war was significantly influenced by socialist realism， especially by Maxim Gorky’s “Song of the Stormy Petrel”. In essence， the traveling nightingale in this magazine was not the Western nightingale but the sea swallow， which is the prophecy of triumph. So the imaginary of nightingale in the Nightingale Magazine was dominated by the wartime discourse. It departs from its original cultural implications and finds new expression in Chinese wartime contexts.

1. Nightingale in Western Literature and the Chinese Translation

The nightingale has long been a literary archetype in Western canons. Albert R. Chandler concludes five kinds of interpretations of the nightingale exist after examining Greek and Latin poetry， including the masterpieces written by Homer， Aristophanes， and Pliny， to name but a few. The nightingale sings the lament to the dead； it could stand for the poet and his poems； it could be the singer of the spring and of love； it praises God with songs； and it addresses the virtuosity of the song.The cultural implications ofthe nightingale have influenced many later writers， and all of those intertextual works have formed a literary tradition. Judging by the 2006 edition of The Norton Anthology of English Literature， the trope of the nightingale is particularly important； it can easily be found in English masterpieces. There are three poems titled after this popular bird，written by John Clare， John Keats and T. S. Eliot respectively.Among these and the other great works based on the archetype of the nightingale， “Ode to a Nightingale”（1819） by John Keats is the most influential one.

In 1925， Xu Zhimo translated “Ode to a Nightingale”， and published it in The fiction monthly with an enthusiastic review and introduction of John Keats.According to Wong Wai-leung， although this piece is an “impressionist criticism” of Keats and his poem， Xu Zhimo’s translation illuminated modern Chinese poetry in a profound way.Also， in July 1929， Xu Zhimo wrote a poem named “Dujuan” （Cuckoo） and published it in Xinyue Magazine. This poem is an ode to Dujuan， a bird that is prevalent in Chinese classical poems. However， Jiang Ruoshui argues that the bird in Xu Zhimo’s poem seem to be Dujuan and Huangli’niao （Yellowbird）， but in fact， the poems behind“Dujuan” were John Keats’s “Ode to a Nightingale” and Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “To a Skylark”. Xu Zhimo creatively transferred the strange birds from Western literature and replaced them with old Chinese literary symbols. Although the names of the birds and the language of the poem were Chinese， the emotion behind the words and the imaginary of the bird were changed radically from its Chinese origin.Thus the nightingale also travels in Xu Zhimo’s poem.

After being introduced by Xu Zhimo， “Ode to a Nightingale” was translated by Li Weijian （1928）， Gu Minyuan （1936）， and Zhu Youcong （1948）. In the same year，“Sonnet to the Nightingale” （1632） by John Milton and “The Nightingale” （1843）by Hans Christian Andersen were introduced to Chinese readers.Oscar Wilde’smasterpiece “The Nightingale and the Rose” （1888） was translated into Chinese even earlier by Zhang Hongxi and published in Xuelin in 1921.The translations of literary works about this exotic animal caused a fashion trend in Journals and periodicals at that time.

Aside from all these translations， in a short span of time， a series of articles on the nightingale written by Chinese writers started to appear， including reviews of translated texts， ornithological introductions， and literary rewritings. For example，Zheng Min’s poem “Fantasia” （1949） is one of the rewritings of the nightingale produced during the Anti-Japanese War.In addition to literary works， there was also a film， My Nightingale， which stars Li Xianglan and was produced by the Manchurian Motion Picture Corporation.In Zheng Min’s poem “Fantasia”， the nightingale’s song is regarded as the outcry of the common people who want to get through the darkness of the wartime. As for My Nightingale， it acts as a deliberate escape from the suffering of the war and advocates Japanese imperialism.

2. Nightingale Magazine

Nightingale Magazine （Yeying）， was one of the most prominent rewritings of the nightingale in Chinese literature （See figure 1）. Fang Zhizhong founded it in 1936 in Shanghai and became its chief editor. Fang was a member of the League of Leftist Writers， a Communist Party member， and also a military officer who graduated from the Huangpu Military Academy and took part in the Northern Expedition. Many significant leftist writers， who also had close relationships with Fang Zhizhong at thattime， including Lu Xun， Zhang Tianyi， Hu Feng and Nie Gannu， published essays and novels in Nightingale Magazine. Nightingale Magazine was one of the literary practices conducted by the leftist intellectuals under the circumstances of the Anti-Japanese War.

The contents of Nightingale Magazine can be roughly categorized into four types. The first one is the essay. It mainly appealed for nationalist and revolutionary literature for the masses. The second is the realistic short stories， which tried to follow the style of Lu Xun’s Outcry and Wandering. Most of the novels dealt with the suffering of people which explicitly critique the social status quo. For example，“Street Children” （Yiqun liulang’er）， written by Li Ni， depicts a group of street children who linger around the city and are very afraid of the police officers. Li Ni wrote it in an emotional way， “The innocent children had very dreadful smiles on their faces when they were dreaming. As for the ones who didn’t smile， they were brought by the chilly wind to paradise”. The third type is translations of and introductions to socialist literary theory. The last is comprised of other forms of Literature， like poems.

In summary， Nightingale Magazine not only appealed for resistance against the Japanese but also severely criticized the social problems and the governing of the KMT. Fang Zhizhong’s role as a Communist Party member made the condition of Nightingale Magazine even worse. As he puts it in a memoir， the special agents of the KMT tried to arrest him many times for publishing the Nightingale Magazine，and they even interrogated the magazine’s readers.As a result， there were only four issues before this magazine was forced to stop due to political pressure and economic issues.

In terms of the name of the magazine， Fang Zhizhong says that the beautiful singing from the “nightingale” is actually the “outcry of the masses”:

In order to expand publicity about the Anti-Japanese War， I wanted to establish a literary magazine. Firstly I asked permission from Zhan Hong，who was my immediate superior in the Communist Party. Then I told my plan to Zhou Gangming， my immediate superior in the League of LeftistWriters. Finally Zhou Wen came to discuss it with me. Our first consideration was the name of the magazine； he said that the periodical Sea Swallow was named after a poem by Maxim Gorky. So we could name our magazine Nightingale， which was written by John Keats. It was said that nightingales get a reddish hue on their back feathers and are very beautiful. They could sing beautiful melodies in the night， which symbolized the darkness of the KMT， and their beautiful melody is the outcry of the masses.

The nightingale is no longer “the light-winged Dryad of the trees” singing for summer，as Keats depicts it in his poem. The understanding of the nightingale by Fang Zhizhong and his colleagues departs from its Western cultural implications as the immortal singer of happiness； or at least departs from what Keats is trying to convey in his poem.

“Ode to a Nightingale”， according to Richard Harter Fogle， is a poem that follows the principle of English Romanticism. The poem addresses the confrontation “between ideal and actual”. Keats sets many contrasts in this poem， for example， the antitheses of“pleasure and pain， of imagination and commonsense reason， fullness and privation， of permanence and change， of nature and the human， of art and life， freedom and bondage，waking and dream”. In his interpretation of the third stanza， Fogle analyzes the symbol of the nightingale in the rich darkness of the forest:

Fade far away， dissolve， and quite forget

What thou among the leaves hast never known，

The weariness， the fever， and the fret

The nightingale， as the immortal bird that keeps singing out of happiness， does not know the tribulations of human beings. Fogle finds that Keats’ purpose of writing on the nightingale is to present the attributes of nature， which are “freedom， ease， spontaneity，harmony， and sobriety”. The nightingale becomes “the voice of nature” in this poem. In addition， it could be the ideal poet and the ideal per se， thus becoming the “antithesis of the privative actual” which is depicted in the third stanza.

From what Fogle describes as the “voice of nature” to what Fang refers to asthe “outcry of the masses”， we can find a transformation of the imaginary of the nightingale in the particularity of the Chinese wartime context， which is distinct from the time and space the symbol of the nightingale emerged. The singing of the nightingale is not the lament of the death or praise of the nature but the outcry of the people who yearn to pass through the darkness of a ruined country. The new imaginary of the nightingale in Nightingale Magazine is the outcry of people from below in the darkness， and it is the discourse of outcry in essence. It appropriates the exotic nightingale， which travels from the Western canons through translation.

3. Metaphor of Outcry during Wartime

The trope of “outcry” is prevalent in the literary and art works in the 1930s. Usually， it has an explicit connotation with resistance and nationalism. For example，the first collection of novels by Lu Xun is named Outcry （See figure 2）. It contains his criticism of and reflections on the feudal society in China， its value system and the miserable life of peasants. The name of the book indicates Lu Xun’s and the common people’s eagerness to fight against the so-called semi-colonial and semi-feudal society at that time and to find other possibilities. Lu Xun created an important metaphor to describe the social circumstance at that time. In the preface to Outcry， he vividly depicted it as an “iron house” without any windows. For Leo Ou-fan Lee， this “iron house” acts as a literary metaphor and the signifier of human “interiority”， and it refers to the “dark， shadowy abode of a disturbed inner psyche”. Most of the people were sleeping and dying， realizing nothing about their condition. However， one of them was awake， and Lu Xun asked ironically and pessimistically， “You are crying now， and some of them are woken up by you. Don’t you feel sorry for letting them suffer over the inevitability of dying？”

Moreover， there are some important artworks that depict people crying out in wartime. Li Hua’s woodcut print “Roar， China！” is an example. It was first published in Modern Print in 1935. The title of this woodcut reminds its reader with big sound and has a very clear connotation with the nation and the country. It depicts a man with a patch on his eyes， tensed muscles and a knife lying beside， and he is about to break the rope that binds him. There are pervasive tensions in “Roar， China！” which makethis woodcut eye-catching and significant. First and foremost， through the imaginations of the viewers， the tension between the character’s outcry and the actual silence of the image supplements and adds depth to each other. Then， the sharp contrast between the flexed triceps muscles of this man and the thin ropes around his body forecasts the moment when the rope suddenly breaks and all his strength bursts forth. The ropes and the sharp knife form another pair； sooner or later this man will pick up the knife and free himself from slavery； the knife will become his weapon and pierce the heart of enemy. The tensions in “Roar， China！” represent what Gotthold Ephraim Lessing has called the “pregnant moment”， which “does not capture the most intense expression of a particular emotion of sensation， but enables the viewers to imagine a higher level of intensity”； it thus “frees the imagination of the viewer”.

For Tang Xiaobing， “Roar， China！” is the most illuminating and representative of Chinese woodcut prints. As a leftist scholar， Tang’s book and his high evaluation of “Roar， China！” indicate his affiliation with Lu Xun and their shared politics of resistance. He argues that the capacity of “Roar， China！” reveals the truth of modern life as a collective struggle for a better future， making this artifact a biaoxian-istic one， which tends to represent social reality or the truth of the sociohistorical background.Since the blindness of this man makes mutual recognition between the viewers and protagonist impossible， the “outcry” formed by his wideopen mouth serves as the only possible intersubjective medium that connects the blindfolded man and the image’s implied viewers， that is， Chinese people who don’t want to be slaves. Although the agonized man was placed alone in the middle of the woodcut print， the evocation of the nationalistic emotion calls forth a collective China. Li Hua served as an agitator whose responsibility was to awaken the nation；his silent-but-yelling work echoed Lu Xun’s famous outcry in “A Madman’s Diary:“Save the children！”

4. The Discourse of Outcry in Nightingale Magazine

In Nightingale Magazine， the metaphor of outcry is prevalent as well. In a woodcut print named “Kaixuan” （Victory） by Ye Fu （See figure 3）. People inthe front row are laughing and bending their elbows to show their strength and confidence. The others following them cry out， lifting their hands upwards in front of their heads. Although， as the reader， it is impossible to know what their slogan is，the caption “victory” leads the reader to the intent of the print’s creator. The widely opened mouths more or less indicate that the cries are powerful. We should pay special attention to the background of the picture， which also serves as the indicator of the meaning of this artwork. The slopes of the mountains are illuminated by sunshine， leaving the other side of the slope is in shadow. The white and black lines of the woodcut print express the light. Judging by the low height of the sun， the time should be sunrise or sunset； in other words， the sun is about to rise up or go down. Given the theme of this print and the fact that everyone is so enthusiastic， I suggest that it is sunrise， which could be a symbol of new birth. This might be not only the rebirth of a powerful Chinese people — no longer the “Sick Man of Asia” — but also of a nation with a bright future. Tang quotes Clare Leighton’s interpretation of particular artifact woodcut: “Every cut made on a wood block prints white， so that one is always working up from the black towards the light”. This interpretation perfectly fits with the woodcut print “Kaixuan”； the sounds of victory are the sounds of the nightingale. In fact， the shades of this print are irregular， which do not follow any natural principle. In order to put emphasis on the people， the author consciously or unconsciously illuminates the front side， which is behind the sun and should be in shadow.

In terms of artistic style， woodcut pictures were widely used in this magazine. Most pictures in Nightingale Magazines are woodcut prints， especially in the third and fourth issues. Since most Chinese woodcut prints created in the 1930s were revolutionary and had strong political implications， the prints in Nightingale Magazine fit this trend as well. The theme of the woodcut prints that appear in this magazine fits with the intentions of its founder and writers， to cry out for resistance，revolution and victory， to wake the people who are still sleeping in the iron house.

Let us turn to Lei Shiyu’s poem “Wo rengyao gechang” （I still have to sing）， which I would argue is the proclamation of the Nightingale Magazine. It was published in the first issue. Lei Shiyu went to Japan from 1933 to 1935 and he joined the League of Leftist Writers in Tokyo and founded two literary magazines during his stay there: Dongliu and Shige. However， his political position incurred the anger of the Japanese authorities. In 1935， he was arrested and forced to go back to China. He went to Shanghai and got to know the editors of Nightingale Magazine， and he began to writepoems for it.Besides “I Still Have to Sing”， Lei Shiyu also published many other poems in Nightingale Magazine， for example， “Huangshui zhige” （Song of the yellow water）， “Bei qiangjian de tudi” （The raped land） and others.

Although I don’t have the money in my pocket to afford food tomorrow，

Although the one who believes in Journalism is unhappy with my existence，

Although the pain of reality sometimes makes me silent，

Although terribly irritated nerves seal the pores on my whole body tightly，

Although the angry heart surges and drives me crazy，

Although I am no longer standing and singing enthusiastically on the“sands” of a foreign country，

No matter in the morning，

Or at twilight，

No matter in the daytime，

Or at night.

I hear the wind blowing and the rain lashing

On the miserable land — this “semi-colonial” country of my own:

Scent of blood， quivering groan…

It happened when I am asleep，

That’s enough —

But why wasn’t I armed with a gun？

（Even I have one，

And I have learnt how to shoot a bullet）

Aiming at the chest of the enemy！

Even as they said， October has passed，

Don’t we need the persistence and courage

Of Mayakovsky？

I can’t think about it anymore.

My critique，

Can not break up the shackles of the reality.

But I am one member of the new singers，

Even if I am forcibly bridled，

In order to vent the bloody and tearful grief and sorrow

In the surging hearts of thousands.

Grasp the air， hold the breath，

I still have to sing！

This title of this poem makes the reader wonder who the singer is. Who would wish to sing under such harsh conditions？ This poem can be regarded as the monologue of the Chinese nightingale， because this kind of powerful and persistent voice in the darkness perfectly echoes Fang Zhizhong’s understanding of the imaginary of the song of nightingale. In order to get rid of the “semi-colonial”condition in this country， the author chooses to sing even he is “forcibly bridled”. The bridle could be regarded as the censorship of the KMT government and the Japanese authorities since， as mentioned before， the KMT tried to arrest the editor， staff and even the readers of Nightingale Magazine. The tension between the bridled mouth and the voice singing makes the poem even more appealing. In front of the bloody and groaning people， the words， “my critique” did not work at all， because it was not able to change the reality and “break up the shackles”. Hence， the author had to be armed and fight for his own freedom as well as that of his country. His song， in contrast to the twittering and happy voice of the nightingale in Keats’ poem， aimed to vent the“bloody and tearful grief and sorrow” of the Chinese people’s surging hearts.

5. The Chinese Nightingale and the Sea Swallow

In the fourth issue of Nightingale Magazine， a poem titled “Haiyan zhige” （The Ode to the Sea Swallow）， written by Wang Yaping， was published:

The night is coming； the moon and the stars are disappearing in the dark，

Depressing and formidable，

Is a storm coming up？

Look at the bright lightening，

It goes across the ocean and lightens the sky，

There are numerous wings in different hues，

I know they are my flying friends on their long and bitter way.

This poem shares many similarities with Lei Shiyu’s “I Still Have to Sing”. Both provide readers with a dangerous and urgent situation， and to some extent， forecast an upcoming revolution. In Lei Shiyu’s poem， the narrator is wakened from a deep sleep，like the one who is woken in the “iron house”， and arms himself to save the “semicolonial” country. In this poem， the moon and the stars are hidden by the darkness；however， the coming storm also foretells changes in the future. Although the storm is on its way， we， the sea swallows， will never give up， since “no one could stop my strong belief: /I fly， with my light wings/to faraway places， silently”.

In terms of the sea swallow， the influence of Maxim Gorky’s “Song of the Stormy Petrel” is very significant in Chinese literature. It was translated into Chinese in 1936 by Yu Tian， and published in Shige zazhi （Poetry）.In Gorky’s sense， the “petrel” is “a streak of sable lightning” and the “prophecy of triumph”， is not afraid of the roaring ocean at all. In his poem， Gorky advocates，“Let it break in all its fury！”The courage and the determination to triumph in Gorky’s poem stimulated Chinese intellectuals under the circumstances of the Anti-Japanese War， and the magazine titled Haiyan （Sea Swallow） during the wartime proves Gorky’s influence.

In 1936， Hu Feng， Lu Xun and Nie Gannu founded the Sea Swallow in Shanghai. The name of this magazine was suggested by Hu Feng: “When we were considering the title of this magazine， Lu Xun proposed Naozhong （Clock）， and I proposed Haiyan. He agreed with me immediately.”Haiyan was forced to stop after publishing two issues. We should notice that Nightingale Magazine was founded in the same year of the Sea Swallow. Fang Zhizhong made it very clear that he deliberately imitated the Sea Swallow. When Nie Gannu told him that the SeaSwallow had been closed down by the KMT， Fang Zhizhong immediately asked him whether they had any unpublished articles， and he also asked Lu Xun to write an essay in Nightingale Magazine.Given the fact that Fang Zhizhong， Lu Xun and Hu Feng were members of the Leftist League of Writers， Nightingale Magazine and Sea Swallow actually followed the same style and shared the same kind of articles which advocated for revolutionary literature for the masses.

In fact， a debate on choosing to be a nightingale or sea swallow was carefully staged in an article titled “Yeying ne？ Haishi haiyan？” （Nightingale or sea swallow？）， which was written by Shi Shui and published in Zhishi yu Shenghuo（Knowledge and Life） on 16 December 1936.In this essay， there is a duality between the nightingale and the sea swallow. The nightingale is regarded as the offspring of Romanticism， which advocates “selfish” and personal emotion. However， the sea swallow is the figure of the “sublime” and the symbol of the times，which appeals for the collectiveness of the society. Based on the literary principles of socialist realism， this essay criticizes those who want to be nightingales， and proposes that people should value the sea swallow more than the nightingale.

However， the imaginary of nightingale and sea swallow were similar in Yeying and Haiyan， which， to some extent， proved that the sharp contradiction between the nightingale and sea swallow was blurred. As mentioned before， the singing of the nightingale was not a lament or a symbol of happiness， nature and beauty anymore. In contrast， it stood for the outcry of the masses， which appealed for the collectiveness of the people. The offspring of Romanticism was modified to adjust itself to the literary principles of socialist realism. Hence， at this time， the metaphors of nightingale and sea swallow flowed together in the special context of wartime in 1930s China.

6. Conclusion

By comparing the imaginary of the nightingale as it appears in Western literature and the new imaginary of the nightingale in China as war with the Japanese began，I propose that the traveling nightingale has been transformed from the symbol ofnature， happiness and beauty in Western poems to the spokesperson of the “outcrying” masses in the Nightingale Magazine. The new imaginary of the nightingale is distinct from the original one and dominated by the discourse of wartime. The outcry of the masses is one of the most prevalent images in Chinese wartime culture，and it can be found in literary works， artistic pictures and even songs from this period. Chinese leftist intellectuals deliberately appropriated the imaginary of the nightingale to express the outcry in the darkness. In addition， the new imaginary of the nightingale was influenced by socialist realism， and in this magazine， it has an explicit connotation with nationalism and collectiveness.

Figure 1　Cover of the Nightingale Magazine. From Yeying 3 （1936）.

Figure 2　Li Hua. “Roar， China！” From Tang Xiaobing， Origins of the Chinese Avant-garde: The Modern Woodcut Movement （Berkeley: University of California Press， 2008）， 144.

Figure 3　“Kaixuan” （Victory）， from Yeying 3 （1936）: preface.

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The Outcry of the Traveling Nightingale: A Study of the Nightingale Magazine （1936）

Hang Wu

（Hong Kong University of Science and Technology，Hong Kong）

Focusing on the leftist magazine Yeying （Nightingale）， founded in Shanghai during the Anti-Japanese War， this article compares the imaginary of the nightingale in Western literary traditions with that of Chinese wartime. It argues that whereas in the Western tradition the singing of the nightingale represented what John Keats called， in Ode to Nightingale， the lament of love or praise of nature， in China’s wartime context its singing invoked up an image of the outcry of the masses. Conjured up by leftist intellectuals to advocate for the triumph of China， the discourse of outcry is notable in the works of Lu Xun and Li Hua. The outcry of the traveling nightingale indicates its affiliation with the sea swallow， another symbolic bird that represents triumph in a storm. This changing of the imaginary of the nightingale serves as an important case to reveal how the animal’s travel enabled it to find new expression in a different context.

Nightingale Magazine； Traveling texts； English Romanticism； Leftist literature

吳航，香港科技大學(xué)人文與社科學(xué)院文學(xué)碩士生，研究領(lǐng)域包括現(xiàn)當(dāng)代中國(guó)文學(xué)，視覺(jué)文化和文本旅行與理論。