朱紅+費(fèi)惠+嚴(yán)海霞+徐善祥
[摘要] 目的 研究流程圖及魚骨圖在降低開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)圍手術(shù)期感染中的應(yīng)用效果。方法 分析既往開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷患者圍手術(shù)期感染的危險(xiǎn)因素,制定感染因素魚骨圖及管理感染流程圖,將其應(yīng)用于手術(shù)醫(yī)護(hù)人員培訓(xùn)中,觀察應(yīng)用前后醫(yī)務(wù)人員考評(píng)分及職業(yè)暴露情況。 結(jié)果 培訓(xùn)前總評(píng)分(82.51±4.89)分、職業(yè)暴露8.93%、正確處理71.15%、感染15.98%;培訓(xùn)后分別為(97.36±2.11)分、3.61%、100.00%、5.93%。結(jié)論 應(yīng)用開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷感染危險(xiǎn)因素魚骨圖及管理流程圖培訓(xùn)后,有助于護(hù)理人員更好地掌握防控感染的相關(guān)知識(shí),同時(shí)降低職業(yè)暴露率。
[關(guān)鍵詞] 流程圖;魚骨圖;開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷;圍手術(shù)期;感染
[中圖分類號(hào)] R47 [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼] B [文章編號(hào)] 1673-9701(2014)17-0150-04
Application of flow diagram and fishbone diagram to reduce perioperative infection of open wounds during operation
ZHU Hong1 FEI Hui1 YAN Haixia1 XU Shanxiang2
1.Operation Room, the First Hospital of Ningbo City in Zhejiang Province, Ningbo 315010, China; 2. Department of Orthopedics, the Second People's Hospital of Ganzhou City in Jiangxi Province, Ganzhou 415000, China
[Abstract] Objective To study the flow chart and fishbone diagram open wounds in reducing perioperative infection in the application results. Methods Patients with open wounds previous perioperative risk factors for infection, infection factors to develop a flow chart fishbone diagram and management of infection, surgery will be applied within the health care training, medical personnel observed before and after application of the test scores and occupational exposure situation. Results Before training the total score were (82.51±4.89) points, occupational exposure 8.93%, with proper handling 71.15%, infection 15.98%; After training that respectively were(97.36±2.11) points, with occupational exposure 3.61%, proper handling 100.00%, infection 5.93%. Conclusion The application of risk factors fishbone diagram flow chart of training and management of open wound infection, helping nurses to better grasp the knowledge of infection prevention and control, while reducing the rate of occupational exposure.
[Key words] Flow chart; Fishbone diagram; Open wound; Perioperative period; Infection
開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷即受傷部位的內(nèi)部組織與外界相通。開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷多為意外傷,發(fā)病較急,病情發(fā)展快。由于開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷表皮受損,可能有異物殘留或組織壞死,如果未能及時(shí)清理或切除,則易誘發(fā)感染[1]。重癥患者引起的全身性感染可能導(dǎo)致多器官功能障礙、膿毒血癥及膿毒性休克,同時(shí)也是開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷后期死亡的重要原因。故對(duì)于開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷圍手術(shù)期感染的預(yù)防與職業(yè)防護(hù),是臨床醫(yī)務(wù)工作者關(guān)注的重點(diǎn)。現(xiàn)本文就對(duì)開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷患者應(yīng)用感染因素的魚骨圖及管理感染的流程圖對(duì)臨床療效的作用具體分析如下。
1 資料與方法
1.1 一般資料
選取醫(yī)院手術(shù)室手術(shù)護(hù)士10名,均為女性,年齡37~48歲,平均(44.3±2.3)歲,其中本科4名,大專6名;副主任護(hù)師2名,主管護(hù)師8名。
1.2 研究方法
1.2.1 評(píng)估開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷的現(xiàn)狀 回顧性分析開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷患者圍手術(shù)期內(nèi)引起的感染患者及相關(guān)護(hù)理人員的臨床資料。對(duì)科內(nèi)護(hù)士進(jìn)行感染因素及管理感染的辦法等相關(guān)知識(shí)調(diào)查后發(fā)現(xiàn),護(hù)士并不能完全掌握引起開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷感染的因素;護(hù)士對(duì)手術(shù)感染的管理辦法了解有欠缺,目標(biāo)與程度不明確,造成患者健康知識(shí)了解不明確、心理壓力過(guò)大。同時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)工作量較大,患者傷勢(shì)危急,醫(yī)務(wù)工作者防護(hù)意識(shí)欠缺,職業(yè)暴露率較高,并且發(fā)生職業(yè)暴露后不能正確及時(shí)地處理。
1.2.2 制作感染因素的魚骨圖及管理感染的流程圖 (1)2012年10月,組織全科護(hù)理人員對(duì)開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷圍手術(shù)期內(nèi)可能引起感染的因素進(jìn)行討論分析,同時(shí)回顧性分析患者的臨床資料,從多種角度探究感染發(fā)生機(jī)制及構(gòu)成要素,從而制定開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)圍手術(shù)期感染的危險(xiǎn)因素魚骨圖,見(jiàn)圖1。(2)根據(jù)圖1與《醫(yī)院感染管理辦法》、《突發(fā)公共衛(wèi)生事件應(yīng)急條例》等防治感染的相關(guān)法律法規(guī),總結(jié)開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)感染控制的流程性管理辦法,從而設(shè)計(jì)出樹(shù)狀結(jié)構(gòu)的管理感染的流程圖,見(jiàn)圖2。endprint
1.2.3 培訓(xùn) 對(duì)10名科內(nèi)護(hù)理人員進(jìn)行感染因素的魚骨圖的解釋及原因分析,使每位護(hù)理人員充分理解魚骨圖各項(xiàng)指標(biāo)的意義,從而嚴(yán)格掌握感染的危險(xiǎn)因素。進(jìn)而對(duì)每位護(hù)理人員分析開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)過(guò)程中的注意事項(xiàng),對(duì)流程圖的各項(xiàng)工作的展開(kāi)及步驟應(yīng)熟練掌握。每周進(jìn)行3次培訓(xùn),培訓(xùn)過(guò)程中可由護(hù)理人員相互交流經(jīng)驗(yàn),對(duì)工作中可能發(fā)生職業(yè)暴露的地方應(yīng)相互指正。
1.3 觀察指標(biāo)
對(duì)未應(yīng)用魚骨圖及流程圖培訓(xùn)前2011年10月~2012年10月及培訓(xùn)后(2012年10月~2013年10月)的護(hù)理人員就開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)感染因素、應(yīng)對(duì)方法及管理感染相關(guān)知識(shí)進(jìn)行考評(píng),包括組織管理、教育與培訓(xùn)、報(bào)告與反饋、院感流行或爆發(fā)的處置、病房院感的預(yù)防與控制、特殊部門重點(diǎn)部門的控制與預(yù)防、手術(shù)感染重點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目的管理、醫(yī)務(wù)人員的防感染辦法、手衛(wèi)生、醫(yī)療廢物的處理,滿分為100分,分?jǐn)?shù)越高,說(shuō)明掌握知識(shí)越為熟練。并對(duì)應(yīng)用培訓(xùn)前、培訓(xùn)后護(hù)士職業(yè)暴露發(fā)生及正確處理的病例數(shù)進(jìn)行統(tǒng)計(jì)分析。其中培訓(xùn)前處理患者582例,培訓(xùn)后處理患者624例,觀察培訓(xùn)前后患者感染情況。
1.4 統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)處理
應(yīng)用SPSS 16.0統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)軟件進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)分析,計(jì)量資料以(x±s)表示,采用t檢驗(yàn),計(jì)數(shù)資料采用χ2檢驗(yàn),P<0.05為差異有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義。
2結(jié)果
2.1 應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前后考評(píng)分比較
科內(nèi)護(hù)理人員應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前平均總評(píng)分為(82.51±4.89)分,培訓(xùn)后平均總評(píng)分為(97.36±2.11)分,差異有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義(P<0.05),見(jiàn)表1。
表1 應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前后考評(píng)分比較(x±s,分)
2.2 職業(yè)暴露
應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前職業(yè)暴露52例(8.93%),正確處理37例(71.15%);培訓(xùn)后職業(yè)暴露21例(3.61%),正確處理21例(100.00%)。見(jiàn)表2。
表2 應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前后職業(yè)暴露情況比較[n(%)]
2.3 感染情況
培訓(xùn)前582例患者感染93例(15.98%);培訓(xùn)后624例患者感染37例(5.93%),差異有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義(P<0.05)。見(jiàn)表3。
表3 應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前后患者感染情況比較[n(%)]
3 討論
感染已成為危害患者及醫(yī)護(hù)人員生命安全的重要公共衛(wèi)生問(wèn)題,因此感染的防控貫穿在護(hù)理工作的全過(guò)程中[2]。
魚骨圖是由日本管理大師石川馨先生發(fā)明出來(lái)的,是一種發(fā)現(xiàn)問(wèn)題“根本原因”的方法,故又稱為“因果圖”,其特點(diǎn)是簡(jiǎn)潔實(shí)用、深入直觀。圖形似魚骨,問(wèn)題或缺陷(即后果)標(biāo)在“魚頭”外,在魚骨分支標(biāo)示“魚刺”,根據(jù)機(jī)會(huì)多寡列出產(chǎn)生問(wèn)題的可能原因,魚骨圖有助于說(shuō)明各個(gè)原因之間是如何相互影響的[3],同時(shí)對(duì)原因出現(xiàn)的時(shí)間次序有明確的標(biāo)識(shí),有助于著手解決關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題。圖1可見(jiàn)引起開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷圍手術(shù)期感染的因素較多,其中手術(shù)復(fù)雜、創(chuàng)傷大、手術(shù)時(shí)間長(zhǎng),手術(shù)操作不當(dāng)、預(yù)防措施不力、手術(shù)中無(wú)菌操作不嚴(yán)格、清創(chuàng)不到位均為造成開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷圍手術(shù)期感染的重要因素[4],其中尤以醫(yī)務(wù)人員的因素為主。
故在制定管理感染的流程圖時(shí)以醫(yī)務(wù)人員為主體,盡量縮短麻醉與手術(shù)時(shí)間,嚴(yán)格無(wú)菌操作、預(yù)防性使用抗生素、術(shù)后徹底清創(chuàng),同時(shí)防控空氣感染與敷料感染以及規(guī)范處理手術(shù)廢物,從而完成圍手術(shù)期。流程圖與魚骨圖均是通過(guò)圖標(biāo)的方式傳達(dá)相關(guān)知識(shí),有助于直觀形象地表達(dá)關(guān)鍵信息,較之傳統(tǒng)的文字傳輸與死板的教育模式[5],可強(qiáng)化護(hù)士對(duì)關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)的理解。而對(duì)于感染管理的辦法通過(guò)流程圖可使護(hù)士明確工作步驟,有章可循,并且結(jié)合魚骨圖不會(huì)遺漏相關(guān)因素及可能引起職業(yè)暴露的工作死角[6]。同時(shí),資料顯示[7],手術(shù)持續(xù)時(shí)間越長(zhǎng),切口感染的機(jī)會(huì)越大。故在搶救開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷患者時(shí)必須做到分秒必爭(zhēng),盡量縮短手術(shù)時(shí)間。流程圖的使用,可幫助護(hù)士在遇到突發(fā)狀況時(shí),有一套合理、嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)、有序的處理流程,不至于手忙腳亂[8],使護(hù)士在工作中程序明確、忙而不亂,增強(qiáng)自我防護(hù)意識(shí),職業(yè)暴露率明顯下降。
本次研究中,科內(nèi)護(hù)理人員應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前平均總評(píng)分為(82.51±4.89)分,培訓(xùn)后平均總評(píng)分為(97.36±2.11)分。應(yīng)用流程圖及魚骨圖進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)前職業(yè)暴露52例(8.93%),正確處理37例(71.15%);培訓(xùn)后職業(yè)暴露21例(3.61%),正確處理21例(100.00%)。同時(shí)培訓(xùn)前582例患者感染93例(15.98%);培訓(xùn)后624例患者感染37例(5.93%)。提示應(yīng)用魚骨圖及流程圖可有效提高護(hù)士學(xué)習(xí)感染防護(hù)知識(shí)的效率,減少職業(yè)暴露的發(fā)生率。
在配合開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)中,手術(shù)室護(hù)士是感染管理和執(zhí)行標(biāo)準(zhǔn)預(yù)防的主導(dǎo)者,有監(jiān)督手術(shù)人員和麻醉師操作的職責(zé)[9]。部分手術(shù)醫(yī)生操作不規(guī)范,多表現(xiàn)在縫針折斷、丟失,使用過(guò)的手術(shù)器械不及時(shí)返回而易發(fā)生刺傷;麻醉師在穿刺后,未將針頭放進(jìn)銳器盒等[10]。
在培訓(xùn)過(guò)程中發(fā)現(xiàn),通過(guò)培訓(xùn)護(hù)士學(xué)習(xí)魚骨圖與流程圖,可強(qiáng)化護(hù)士嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)負(fù)責(zé)的工作態(tài)度、明確工作職責(zé)[11-13],同時(shí)強(qiáng)化醫(yī)護(hù)人員的消毒隔離和無(wú)菌技術(shù)觀念。醫(yī)務(wù)人員通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)后,可用于監(jiān)督麻醉師與手術(shù)醫(yī)生的操作,如加強(qiáng)縫針折斷或丟失的管理、避免手術(shù)器械刺傷患者或醫(yī)務(wù)人員、規(guī)范無(wú)菌操作與徹底清創(chuàng)。培訓(xùn)中由于經(jīng)驗(yàn)交流,有助于緩解護(hù)士工作壓力,加強(qiáng)團(tuán)隊(duì)凝聚力[11]。對(duì)于患者而言,醫(yī)護(hù)人員對(duì)業(yè)務(wù)學(xué)習(xí)能力的增強(qiáng),有助于幫助患者了解自身疾病,降低感染的發(fā)生率,同時(shí)緩解患者擔(dān)憂、恐懼的心理狀態(tài)[14],建立良好的醫(yī)患關(guān)系,同時(shí)取得患者對(duì)醫(yī)療工作的配合,從而增強(qiáng)戰(zhàn)勝疾病的信心與決心,有助于疾病的康復(fù)。此外,護(hù)士業(yè)務(wù)水平的增高也有助于醫(yī)院社會(huì)形象的樹(shù)立[15,16]。
總之,應(yīng)用開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷感染危險(xiǎn)因素魚骨圖及管理的流程圖培訓(xùn)后,有助于護(hù)理人員更好地掌握防控感染的相關(guān)知識(shí),同時(shí)可降低職業(yè)暴露率,可為臨床防控感染提供一定的幫助。endprint
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[6] McGirt M J,Parker S L,Lerner J,et al. Comparative analysis of perioperative surgical site infection after minimally invasive versus open posterior transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion: Analysis of hospital billing and discharge data from 5170 patients: Clinical article[J]. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine,2011,14(6):771-778.
[7] Haga H,F(xiàn)ukushima N. Historical consideration of the widespread infection of the hepatitis C virus in Japan and use of a fishbone diagram to investigate the cause[J]. The Journal of Japanese History of Pharmacy,2010,46(1):21-28.
[8] 曹新平. 魚骨圖和流程圖在開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)感染管理中的應(yīng)用[J]. 護(hù)理學(xué)雜志,2013,28(2):3-5.
[9] 權(quán)愛(ài)蓮. 顱內(nèi)動(dòng)脈瘤破裂出血急診手術(shù)配合的流程管理[J]. 護(hù)理學(xué)雜志,2009,24(12):60-61.
[10] Poon K C,Lee H Y,Yau W H. Predictive factors for the existence of foreign body following fish bone ingestion: a prospective study[J]. Hong Kong Journal of Emergency Medicine,2010,17(2):132-141.
[11] Tamm E P,Szklaruk J,Puthooran L,et al. Quality initiatives: planning,setting up,and carrying out radiology Process improvement projects[J]. Radiographics,2012,32(5):1529-1542.
[12] 張春斐,張紅楓,朱亮德,等. 六西格瑪管理方法降低高壓蒸汽滅菌后濕包發(fā)生率[J]. 解放軍護(hù)理雜志,2010,27(2):144-146.
[13] 夏曉燕. 應(yīng)用六西格瑪方法改進(jìn)婦產(chǎn)科門診流程[D]. 南方醫(yī)科大學(xué),2008.
[14] Wei G S,Jackson J L,O'malley P G. Postmenopausal osteoporosis risk management in primary care: How well does it adhere to national practice guidelines[J]. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association,2003,58(2):99-104.
[15] Yoshida J,Koda S,Nishida S,et al. Association between occupational exposure levels of antineoplastic drugs and work environment in five hospitals in Japan[J]. Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice,2011,17(1):29-38.
[16] Vandenplas O,Dressel H,Wilken D,et al. Management of occupational asthma: Cessation or reduction of exposure? A systematic review of available evidence[J]. European Respiratory Journal,2011,38(4):804-811.
(收稿日期:2013-12-16)endprint
[參考文獻(xiàn)]
[1] Taner M T,Sezen B,Antony J. An overview of six sigma applications in healthcare industry[J]. International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance,2007,20(4):329-340.
[2] Blatnik J A,Krpata D M,Novitsky Y W,et al. Does a history of wound infection predict postoperative surgical site infection after ventral hernia repair[J]. The American Journal of Surgery,2012,203(3):370-374.
[3] Greif R,Akca O,Horn E P,et al. Supplemental perioperative oxygen to reduce the incidence of surgical-wound infection[J]. New England Journal of Medicine,2000,342(3):161-167.
[4] Zerr MBA,Kathryn J,F(xiàn)urnary M D,et al. Glucose control lowers the risk of wound infection in diabetics after open heart operations[J]. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery,1997, 63(2): 356-361.
[5] Chen L F,Arduino J M,Sheng S,et al. Epidemiology and outcome of major postoperative infections following cardiac surgery: Risk factors and impact of pathogen type[J]. American Journal of Infection Control,2012,40(10):963-968.
[6] McGirt M J,Parker S L,Lerner J,et al. Comparative analysis of perioperative surgical site infection after minimally invasive versus open posterior transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion: Analysis of hospital billing and discharge data from 5170 patients: Clinical article[J]. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine,2011,14(6):771-778.
[7] Haga H,F(xiàn)ukushima N. Historical consideration of the widespread infection of the hepatitis C virus in Japan and use of a fishbone diagram to investigate the cause[J]. The Journal of Japanese History of Pharmacy,2010,46(1):21-28.
[8] 曹新平. 魚骨圖和流程圖在開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)感染管理中的應(yīng)用[J]. 護(hù)理學(xué)雜志,2013,28(2):3-5.
[9] 權(quán)愛(ài)蓮. 顱內(nèi)動(dòng)脈瘤破裂出血急診手術(shù)配合的流程管理[J]. 護(hù)理學(xué)雜志,2009,24(12):60-61.
[10] Poon K C,Lee H Y,Yau W H. Predictive factors for the existence of foreign body following fish bone ingestion: a prospective study[J]. Hong Kong Journal of Emergency Medicine,2010,17(2):132-141.
[11] Tamm E P,Szklaruk J,Puthooran L,et al. Quality initiatives: planning,setting up,and carrying out radiology Process improvement projects[J]. Radiographics,2012,32(5):1529-1542.
[12] 張春斐,張紅楓,朱亮德,等. 六西格瑪管理方法降低高壓蒸汽滅菌后濕包發(fā)生率[J]. 解放軍護(hù)理雜志,2010,27(2):144-146.
[13] 夏曉燕. 應(yīng)用六西格瑪方法改進(jìn)婦產(chǎn)科門診流程[D]. 南方醫(yī)科大學(xué),2008.
[14] Wei G S,Jackson J L,O'malley P G. Postmenopausal osteoporosis risk management in primary care: How well does it adhere to national practice guidelines[J]. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association,2003,58(2):99-104.
[15] Yoshida J,Koda S,Nishida S,et al. Association between occupational exposure levels of antineoplastic drugs and work environment in five hospitals in Japan[J]. Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice,2011,17(1):29-38.
[16] Vandenplas O,Dressel H,Wilken D,et al. Management of occupational asthma: Cessation or reduction of exposure? A systematic review of available evidence[J]. European Respiratory Journal,2011,38(4):804-811.
(收稿日期:2013-12-16)endprint
[參考文獻(xiàn)]
[1] Taner M T,Sezen B,Antony J. An overview of six sigma applications in healthcare industry[J]. International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance,2007,20(4):329-340.
[2] Blatnik J A,Krpata D M,Novitsky Y W,et al. Does a history of wound infection predict postoperative surgical site infection after ventral hernia repair[J]. The American Journal of Surgery,2012,203(3):370-374.
[3] Greif R,Akca O,Horn E P,et al. Supplemental perioperative oxygen to reduce the incidence of surgical-wound infection[J]. New England Journal of Medicine,2000,342(3):161-167.
[4] Zerr MBA,Kathryn J,F(xiàn)urnary M D,et al. Glucose control lowers the risk of wound infection in diabetics after open heart operations[J]. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery,1997, 63(2): 356-361.
[5] Chen L F,Arduino J M,Sheng S,et al. Epidemiology and outcome of major postoperative infections following cardiac surgery: Risk factors and impact of pathogen type[J]. American Journal of Infection Control,2012,40(10):963-968.
[6] McGirt M J,Parker S L,Lerner J,et al. Comparative analysis of perioperative surgical site infection after minimally invasive versus open posterior transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion: Analysis of hospital billing and discharge data from 5170 patients: Clinical article[J]. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine,2011,14(6):771-778.
[7] Haga H,F(xiàn)ukushima N. Historical consideration of the widespread infection of the hepatitis C virus in Japan and use of a fishbone diagram to investigate the cause[J]. The Journal of Japanese History of Pharmacy,2010,46(1):21-28.
[8] 曹新平. 魚骨圖和流程圖在開(kāi)放性創(chuàng)傷手術(shù)感染管理中的應(yīng)用[J]. 護(hù)理學(xué)雜志,2013,28(2):3-5.
[9] 權(quán)愛(ài)蓮. 顱內(nèi)動(dòng)脈瘤破裂出血急診手術(shù)配合的流程管理[J]. 護(hù)理學(xué)雜志,2009,24(12):60-61.
[10] Poon K C,Lee H Y,Yau W H. Predictive factors for the existence of foreign body following fish bone ingestion: a prospective study[J]. Hong Kong Journal of Emergency Medicine,2010,17(2):132-141.
[11] Tamm E P,Szklaruk J,Puthooran L,et al. Quality initiatives: planning,setting up,and carrying out radiology Process improvement projects[J]. Radiographics,2012,32(5):1529-1542.
[12] 張春斐,張紅楓,朱亮德,等. 六西格瑪管理方法降低高壓蒸汽滅菌后濕包發(fā)生率[J]. 解放軍護(hù)理雜志,2010,27(2):144-146.
[13] 夏曉燕. 應(yīng)用六西格瑪方法改進(jìn)婦產(chǎn)科門診流程[D]. 南方醫(yī)科大學(xué),2008.
[14] Wei G S,Jackson J L,O'malley P G. Postmenopausal osteoporosis risk management in primary care: How well does it adhere to national practice guidelines[J]. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association,2003,58(2):99-104.
[15] Yoshida J,Koda S,Nishida S,et al. Association between occupational exposure levels of antineoplastic drugs and work environment in five hospitals in Japan[J]. Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice,2011,17(1):29-38.
[16] Vandenplas O,Dressel H,Wilken D,et al. Management of occupational asthma: Cessation or reduction of exposure? A systematic review of available evidence[J]. European Respiratory Journal,2011,38(4):804-811.
(收稿日期:2013-12-16)endprint