[摘要] 腸道微生物群具有豐富的生物轉(zhuǎn)化能力,從而使宿主能接觸到一系列具有生物活性的代謝產(chǎn)物。這些代謝產(chǎn)物參與了胃腸道和中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)之間的信號(hào)傳遞,并具有調(diào)節(jié)中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)生理和病理過程的潛力。這種雙向交流可以通過各種直接和間接機(jī)制發(fā)生,包括與宿主腦中的受體結(jié)合、刺激腸道中的迷走神經(jīng)、改變中樞神經(jīng)傳遞以及調(diào)節(jié)神經(jīng)炎癥。本文綜述了短鏈脂肪酸、膽汁酸、神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)等微生物代謝產(chǎn)物在腸-腦軸中的作用機(jī)制,從調(diào)控腸道微生物的角度為相關(guān)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病的治療提供新思路。
[關(guān)鍵詞] 微生物群;代謝;腸-腦軸;脂肪酸類;膽汁酸類和鹽類;神經(jīng)遞質(zhì);綜述
[中圖分類號(hào)] R329.35
[文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)志碼] A
[文章編號(hào)] 2096-5532(2021)03-0470-05
doi:10.11712/jms.2096-5532.2021.57.066
[開放科學(xué)(資源服務(wù))標(biāo)識(shí)碼(OSID)]
[網(wǎng)絡(luò)出版] https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/37.1517.R.20210201.1055.005.html;2021-02-01 16:02:16
RESEARCH ADVANCES IN THE MECHANISM OF ACTION OF MICROBIAL METABOLITES IN THE GUT-BRAIN AXIS
SHI Yuanyuan, HOU Lin, ZHANG Li, CAO Yi
(Organization and Personnel Office, Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China)
[ABSTRACT]Intestinal microflora has rich biotransformation abilities, which enables the host to come into contact with a series of bioactive metabolites. Such metabolites participate in the signal transduction between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system and have the potential to regulate the physiological and pathological processes of the central nervous system. Such two-way communication can take place through a variety of direct and indirect mechanisms, which include binding to receptors in the host brain, stimulating the vagus nerve in the intestinal tract, altering central neurotransmission, and regulating neuroinflammation. This article reviews the mechanism of action of microbial metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids, bile acids, and neurotransmitters, in the gut-brain axis, in order to provide new ideas for the treatment of nervous system diseases from the perspective of the regulation of intestinal microflora.
[KEY WORDS]microbiota; metabolism; gut-brain axis; fatty acids; bile acids and salts; neurotransmitters; review
人的腸道微生物群包含500~1 000種細(xì)菌,共有約 200萬個(gè)基因,超過了人類基因總量的100倍[1],其中許多基因編碼執(zhí)行代謝功能并產(chǎn)生微生物專有代謝物的蛋白質(zhì)。微生物群的這種作用擴(kuò)大了宿主生物轉(zhuǎn)化的利用范圍,以及可以處理的化合物的多樣性。這種廣泛的代謝潛力使得微生物群與進(jìn)入腸道的一系列底物相結(jié)合,產(chǎn)生了大量的代謝產(chǎn)物,其中許多代謝產(chǎn)物對(duì)宿主來說是重要的分子前體。腸-腦軸(GBA)是胃腸道和中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)(CNS)之間的雙向信號(hào)網(wǎng)絡(luò)。該軸有幾種不同的信號(hào)途徑,包括自主神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)(ANS)、下丘腦垂體腎上腺軸(HPA軸)和免疫系統(tǒng)。微生物相關(guān)的代謝產(chǎn)物通過這些不同途徑發(fā)生作用,調(diào)節(jié)CNS的功能和行為。先前研究已經(jīng)觀察到,在自閉癥譜系障礙(ASD)、焦慮和抑郁等一系列CNS疾病中,腸道微生物群落結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生顯著變化[2]。雖然微生物變化和神經(jīng)疾病之間的因果關(guān)系仍未完全闡明,但嚙齒類動(dòng)物的研究表明,微生物群的變化可以改變精神心理和行為[3]。本文主要綜述短鏈脂肪酸(SCFA)、膽汁酸(BA)、神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)等微生物來源的生物活性分子在腸道到大腦信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)中的作用及機(jī)制。
1 SCFA
SCFA是盲腸和結(jié)腸中微生物對(duì)膳食中碳水化合物厭氧發(fā)酵產(chǎn)生的小分子有機(jī)酸,其可以通過各種機(jī)制影響CNS。乙酸、丙酸和丁酸是主要的SCFA,而異丁酸、戊酸和異戊酸的生成量較小。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),高生活質(zhì)量人群的糞便具有高豐度糞桿菌屬(Faecalibacterium)和糞球菌屬(Coprococcus),這兩個(gè)菌屬是革蘭陽性厭氧細(xì)菌,可以發(fā)酵膳食纖維產(chǎn)生SCFA[4]。相反,與非抑郁對(duì)照相比,重度抑郁障礙(MDD)病人的糞便、尿液和血漿中的SCFA含量較低[5]。研究證實(shí),益生元誘導(dǎo)的SCFA增加可以改善小鼠的抑郁和焦慮行為,并且能減輕癡呆模型小鼠的認(rèn)知損害[6-7]。SCFA也被證明在亨廷頓癥、阿爾茨海默病、帕金森病和卒中等神經(jīng)退行性疾病和腦血管疾病中起著重要作用[8-9]。
SCFA可以通過與細(xì)胞表達(dá)的受體結(jié)合以及改變宿主基因表達(dá)來實(shí)現(xiàn)與GBA的相互作用[10-12]。SCFA能夠結(jié)合并激活游離脂肪酸受體2(GPR43或FFAR2)、游離脂肪酸受體3(GPR41或FFAR3)和羥基羧酸受體2(GPR109A或HCAR2)[13]。這些受體在人體內(nèi)的多種細(xì)胞中普遍表達(dá),包括腸內(nèi)分泌細(xì)胞、脂肪細(xì)胞、免疫細(xì)胞和神經(jīng)元等。宿主對(duì)SCFA和GPR43的依賴效應(yīng)可延伸到CNS,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是CNS的常駐巨噬細(xì)胞,其成熟和功能依賴于腸道菌群,維持小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的穩(wěn)態(tài)需要SCFA和GPR43[14]。此外,SCFA可以通過調(diào)節(jié)組蛋白乙?;图谆瘉韺?duì)基因表達(dá)施加表觀遺傳控制[15-16]。
SCFA可以通過刺激腸內(nèi)分泌細(xì)胞釋放腸道激素和肽類來間接調(diào)節(jié)GBA。SCFA還可通過刺激胰高血糖素樣肽-1(GLP-1)、肽YY(PYY)和瘦素等厭食激素的分泌來調(diào)節(jié)攝食行為[11,17-19]。這些食欲激素除了可以作用于大腦中的受體,還可以作用于迷走神經(jīng)。GOSWAMI等[20]研究證明了迷走神經(jīng)在腸道微生物控制食欲中的作用,其中SCFA的厭食效應(yīng)在迷走神經(jīng)切斷的小鼠中明顯降低。SCFA也可以通過中樞機(jī)制參與食欲調(diào)節(jié)。腸源性乙酸鹽可以穿過血-腦脊液屏障,通過改變神經(jīng)肽的表達(dá)對(duì)下丘腦控制食欲有直接影響[21]。
SCFA影響GBA的另一種機(jī)制是通過維持腸道和血-腦脊液屏障功能[22-23]。丁酸可以增強(qiáng)緊密連接蛋白的表達(dá),穩(wěn)定腸黏膜屏障功能,以限制細(xì)菌和其他微生物從腸道轉(zhuǎn)移到血液中[24-26]。當(dāng)腸道屏障通透性增加時(shí),宿主與細(xì)菌脂多糖(LPS)的接觸增加,從而導(dǎo)致慢性炎癥反應(yīng)。慢性炎癥在包括抑郁癥和焦慮癥在內(nèi)的一系列神經(jīng)精神障礙中起著重要作用,促炎細(xì)胞因子能夠影響神經(jīng)傳遞并改變行為。與它們?cè)谀c道中的作用一致,SCFA可以通過增加緊密連接表達(dá)來促進(jìn)血-腦脊液屏障的完整性[8]。盡管已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)SCFA通過各種直接和間接的途徑影響著CNS,但支持SCFA具有改善神經(jīng)疾病潛力的結(jié)果仍不夠一致,故而還需更深入地了解其潛在機(jī)制。
2 BA
BA是膽固醇衍生的類固醇,可通過直接和間接途徑影響CNS。兩種主要的BA,膽酸(CA)和鵝去氧膽酸(CDCA)在肝臟中合成,并與甘氨酸或牛磺酸結(jié)合,然后分泌到膽汁中。進(jìn)食刺激后,BA被釋放到腸道中,其中有95%被重新吸收。一小部分BA被運(yùn)輸?shù)浇Y(jié)腸,在腸道菌群的7α-脫羥基作用下轉(zhuǎn)化為次級(jí)BA,即脫氧膽酸(DCA)和熊去氧膽酸(UDCA)。
與SCFA一樣,BA也可以作為信號(hào)分子激活法尼醇X受體(FXR)、G蛋白偶聯(lián)膽汁酸受體5(TGR5)、孕烷X受體(PXR)及維生素D受體(VDR)等。通過激活這些受體,BA控制葡萄糖穩(wěn)態(tài)、脂質(zhì)代謝和能量消耗等,對(duì)宿主新陳代謝有顯著影響。微生物群功能的變化可以改變BA池的組成,并改變其整體信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)能力[27]。已經(jīng)在人類和嚙齒類動(dòng)物的大腦中檢測(cè)到BA,并且它們的受體和轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)蛋白在CNS的細(xì)胞中表達(dá)[28-29]。這表明BA可能在CNS中起信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)作用。雖然目前對(duì)這種信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)潛能的了解有限,但在小鼠中發(fā)現(xiàn)FXR缺失擾亂了多種神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)系統(tǒng),并改變了情感、認(rèn)知和運(yùn)動(dòng)功能等[30]。
BA可以通過破壞緊密連接直接調(diào)節(jié)腸道和血-腦脊液屏障的通透性,從而直接影響腦功能[31]。DCA和CDCA可以增加血-腦脊液屏障的通透性,而UDCA可以通過減少腦內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的凋亡發(fā)揮保護(hù)作用[32]。BA也可以影響免疫反應(yīng),因?yàn)閁DCA已被發(fā)現(xiàn)可以通過結(jié)合小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞上表達(dá)的TGR5來減輕小鼠的神經(jīng)炎癥[33]。另外,BA也可以通過激活腸道中的FXR來向CNS發(fā)出信號(hào),以促進(jìn)中間分子如GLP-1和成纖維細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子19(FGF19)的釋放。GLP-1可以進(jìn)入血液并激活腦中的受體,也可以通過激活迷走神經(jīng)傳入纖維向CNS發(fā)出信號(hào)[34-35]。FGF19可以通過與下丘腦弓狀核(ARC)表達(dá)的受體結(jié)合來抑制刺鼠基因相關(guān)蛋白(AGRP)、神經(jīng)肽Y(NPY)神經(jīng)元,從而引發(fā)厭食效應(yīng)[36]。
3 神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)
中樞神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)也存在于胃腸道中,在調(diào)節(jié)腸運(yùn)動(dòng)、腸細(xì)胞分泌以及細(xì)胞信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)中起著重要作用[37-38]。腸道微生物群可以合成多種神經(jīng)遞質(zhì):乳酸桿菌和雙歧桿菌產(chǎn)生γ-氨基丁酸(GABA),大腸桿菌產(chǎn)生5-羥色胺(5-HT)和多巴胺(DA),乳酸桿菌產(chǎn)生乙酰膽堿,以及更多的微生物群合成和釋放具有神經(jīng)活性的其他分子[39-41]。微生物群影響神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)水平已在嚙齒動(dòng)物模型中被證明,微生物缺乏可顯著降低DA和GABA等神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)水平[42-43]。目前尚不清楚循環(huán)神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)是直接來自微生物群還是來自宿主,因?yàn)槲⑸锎x物(例如次級(jí)BA、SCFA)可以刺激腸嗜鉻細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)并進(jìn)入血液循環(huán)[42]。
調(diào)節(jié)神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)前體是微生物群影響宿主神經(jīng)傳遞的另一種途徑。酪氨酸是左旋多巴胺(L-DOPA)前體,L-DOPA可以脫羧形成DA。反過來,DA可以代謝成其他兒茶酚胺,如去甲腎上腺素和腎上腺素。酪氨酸可以從飲食中獲得,也可以從苯丙氨酸中獲得,這兩種氨基酸都可以被腸道中的微生物分解成一系列分子,從而改變宿主對(duì)它們的利用度。L-DOPA轉(zhuǎn)化為DA也受微生物群的控制,腸球菌和乳酸桿菌通過表達(dá)酪氨酸脫羧酶參與L-DOPA的脫羧[44-45]。這對(duì)于帕金森病的治療具有重要意義,因?yàn)橐种仆庵躄-DOPA代謝可以最大化提高大腦中的L-DOPA濃度。
微生物代謝產(chǎn)物還可以通過激活迷走神經(jīng)來影響中樞神經(jīng)傳遞。BRAVO等[46]研究證明,迷走神經(jīng)參與了GBA交流,應(yīng)用鼠李糖乳酸桿菌可改變中樞GABA受體的表達(dá),同時(shí)減輕焦慮和抑郁癥樣癥狀,而在迷走神經(jīng)切除小鼠中則沒有觀察到這種變化。腸道中產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)還能通過調(diào)節(jié)免疫系統(tǒng)來影響大腦功能,已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)5-HT能激活免疫細(xì)胞,以及GABA可減輕腸道炎癥[47-48]。這些研究表明,腸道微生物群直接或間接產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)通過結(jié)合CNS中的特定受體或外周細(xì)胞上的受體而影響宿主心理和行為??赡艽嬖诟嗟念愃粕窠?jīng)遞質(zhì)的活性分子,有待于進(jìn)一步發(fā)現(xiàn)和研究。腸道微生物群與宿主之間這種神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)代謝交流本質(zhì)上是雙向的:除了合成能夠改變宿主生理的神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)外,腸道微生物還對(duì)宿主產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)做出反應(yīng),從而影響微生物群的生長(zhǎng)和豐富度[49]。
4 其他腸道微生物群代謝產(chǎn)物
來自腸道微生物群的其他幾種代謝產(chǎn)物也可以參與GBA通訊。膽堿是一種必需營(yíng)養(yǎng)素,主要從飲食中的卵磷脂和肉堿中獲取,但是在人體內(nèi),肝臟中也可以合成少量膽堿[50]。膽堿具有參與生物膜構(gòu)成、表觀遺傳和細(xì)胞信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)的功能。它參與乙酰膽堿的合成,并且是細(xì)胞膜成分磷脂酰膽堿和鞘磷脂的前體。盡管膽堿本身不是細(xì)菌產(chǎn)物,但腸道微生物可以將膽堿分解成一系列代謝產(chǎn)物,包括甜菜堿和三甲胺等。由于腸道微生物對(duì)膽堿的代謝會(huì)耗盡宿主體內(nèi)可利用的膽堿,因此,利用膽堿的細(xì)菌過多將會(huì)導(dǎo)致膽堿的缺乏,這將增加代謝疾病的發(fā)生,增加心血管疾病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),改變宿主的神經(jīng)精神行為。此外,膽堿是甲基的重要來源,它可以有效調(diào)節(jié)DNA甲基化。ROMANO等[51]在小鼠中發(fā)現(xiàn),膽堿的細(xì)菌消耗降低了甲基供應(yīng),并減少了包括大腦在內(nèi)的多個(gè)組織中的DNA甲基化。
乳酸是一種有機(jī)酸,產(chǎn)生于宿主代謝過程以及乳酸桿菌、雙歧桿菌和變形桿菌對(duì)膳食纖維的發(fā)酵[52]。盡管乳酸在腸道中水平很低,但它可以被吸收到血液中并穿過血-腦脊液屏障。乳酸在大腦信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)中起著確定的作用,它可以作為神經(jīng)元的能量底物,有助于突觸可塑性,并在記憶形成過程中起重要作用[53-54]。乳酸調(diào)節(jié)情緒行為的潛在機(jī)制是通過直接激活海馬、新皮質(zhì)和小腦中表達(dá)的G-蛋白偶聯(lián)受體81(GPR81),通過GPR81激活,乳酸可調(diào)節(jié)脂質(zhì)和葡萄糖的代謝,發(fā)揮抗炎作用,并抑制GABA能神經(jīng)傳遞[55-57]。盡管微生物對(duì)中樞乳酸濃度的影響已在無菌大鼠中得到證實(shí),但其對(duì)乳酸和情緒中樞影響水平仍然難以評(píng)估[58]。
微生物群可以在腸道內(nèi)合成維生素,人類的維生素代謝在很大程度上依賴于微生物的供應(yīng)。在CNS功能中具有重要作用的B族維生素,如核黃素(B2)、葉酸(B9)和鈷胺(B12)等,作為中樞代謝反應(yīng)的輔酶,其缺乏可以表現(xiàn)為各種神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀,包括異常運(yùn)動(dòng)功能、睡眠記憶障礙以及精神情緒癥狀等[59]。據(jù)估計(jì),微生物群可以為人類提供31%參考攝入量的B12,而B12缺乏與一系列精神和神經(jīng)疾病有關(guān),包括精神發(fā)育遲緩、記憶障礙、注意力缺陷和癡呆等[60]。
5 小結(jié)
在微生物群和哺乳動(dòng)物宿主之間發(fā)生的雙向通信是這兩個(gè)互補(bǔ)系統(tǒng)協(xié)同進(jìn)化的結(jié)果,這種信息交流可以通過各種機(jī)制來介導(dǎo)。微生物代謝產(chǎn)物可以通過直接和(或)間接方式調(diào)節(jié)CNS,最終影響宿主行為和認(rèn)知功能。隨著微生物代謝產(chǎn)物與CNS疾病之間的多因素相互作用的深入探究,人們對(duì)GBA病理機(jī)制的認(rèn)識(shí)將進(jìn)一步增加。在未來,具有參與關(guān)鍵作用潛力的微生物代謝產(chǎn)物可能被用于治療和預(yù)防CNS疾病。
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(本文編輯 馬偉平)