摘要:文章從句子結構、形容詞類別、形容詞形式和上下文語境四個方面考察了英語形容詞做主語的現(xiàn)象,結果顯示,形容詞做主語時所在的結構主要為系詞結構,相關語境主要為回聲語境,做主語的形容詞以核心形容詞為主,其形式以原級和光桿形式為主。
關鍵詞:英語形容詞;主語;系詞結構;回聲語境
英語的詞類跟語法成分大體對應,這一點已經(jīng)得到國內(nèi)外語法學界的普遍共識,即名詞做主賓語、動詞做謂語、形容詞做定語、副詞做狀語。動詞做主賓語需要改變形態(tài),比如用動詞不定式形式,例如“To love and to be loved is the greatest happiness in the world”,或者用動名詞形式,例如“Deviating from the rules will do no good to you”。形容詞做主賓語一般也需要改變形態(tài),即跟名詞性詞綴組合形成名詞,例如:“But it is also a book of great beauty that reminds the reader that simplicity is often best”。但是,在某些結構中,一些形容詞卻可以沒有任何形態(tài)變化的情況下直接做主賓語。本文將在高娟(2016)的基礎上,詳細考察英語形容詞做主語這種特殊現(xiàn)象有哪些特點,英語形容詞作賓語現(xiàn)象將另文討論。
一、英語形容詞做主語時句子結構的特點
英語形容詞做主語時一般是在含有系詞be動詞的系詞句中充當主語。按照目前學界的主流觀點(如Heycock & Kroch,1999;Rothstein,2001;劉愛英、韓景泉,2004;Heller,2005;Arimoto,2006; Birner, Kaplan & Ward,2007等等),英語系詞句按照其語義類型一般可以分為述謂性系詞句和等同性系詞句兩種,盡管自Higgins(1979)以來,學者們對系詞句的分類也有其他意見(如den Dikken,2006;Mikkelsen,2005等等)。由于對系詞句的分類并不是本文的核心問題,本文采用簡潔的分類方法,認為系詞句包括述謂性系詞句和等同性系詞句兩大類。英語形容詞做主語在這兩類系詞句中都有體現(xiàn)。
英語形容詞在述謂性系詞句中做主語時,謂語部分里的“be”動詞之后可以跟三類短語:形容詞短語、名詞短語和介詞短語。謂語部分里“be”動詞后跟形容詞短語的情況最為常見,而且其中的形容詞以評價類形容詞為主。請看下列例句:
(一)a. Yet, simple is neither easy nor predictable.
b. ?I see people who think big is better, but it isnt.
謂語部分里“be”動詞后跟名詞短語的情況相對少一些,例如:
(二)a. Yes, again, less bad is good news. The rate of deterioration in the foreclosures is slowing.
b. Mind if I tell you something, Ink? Serious is your whole problem.
謂語部分里“be”動詞后跟介詞短語的情況偶爾會出現(xiàn),例如:
(三)Its all so bleak and beautiful that I want to do something crazy, and…. Crazy is in the air, and in the ground too...
英語形容詞在等同性系詞句中做主語時,可以細分為兩種情況,即根據(jù)系詞前后的成分是否相同分為嚴格的等同性系詞句和非嚴格的等同性系詞句。形容詞在嚴格的等同性系詞句中做主語如(4)所示:
(四)a. And I think that, you know, we have to draw a line and say, listen, right is right; wrong is wrong.
b. you know, bad is bad, no matter what it is.
英語形容詞在非嚴格的等同性系詞句中做主語時,be后面的部分可以是無核關系小句,其中以what引導的居多(5),其他wh-詞引導的比較少(6);也可以是名詞短語(7)。
(五)And as Waters knows best, simple is what its all about.
(六)A: Where is she?
B: Dead is where she is.
(七) Sad is the man who is asked for a story and can not come up with one.
除了在系詞句中做主語,英語形容詞還可以在非系詞句中做主語,此時的謂語動詞既可以是否定式(8),也可以是肯定式的情況(9)。
(八)Remember, invisible doesnt necessarily mean unreachable.
(九)a. As her grandmother used to say,“ Handsome is as handsome does. ”
二、英語形容詞做主語時形容詞的類別特點
能做主語的英語形容詞本身一般是既能做定語又能做謂語的核心形容詞(Quirk et al, 1985),從上面所舉例句可見一斑。但情況也不是那么絕對,偶有邊緣形容詞做主語的情況,例(10)表明一般只做謂語的形容詞也可以做主語。
(十)What she had told her precious babies was truer than even she had imagined. Alive was always alive, even when dead was better.
三、英語形容詞做主語時形容詞的形式特點
英語形容詞做主語時一般都是不受修飾的形容詞原級,也有形容詞的比較級形式如(11),目前暫未發(fā)現(xiàn)形容詞的最高級形式出現(xiàn)在主語位置的情況。
(十一)a. We must all change our thinking about aging. Older does not mean sicker.
b. Check the unit price, for cereal especially. Bigger does not always mean cheaper.
形容詞受副詞修飾時,最常見的是受how的修飾(12),也可以受very、not或其他副詞的修飾(13)。
(十二)a. “So how old is old?”“I used to think being 30 was old,” says Cindy Lay.
b. ?Like they can't decide just how close to get. How close is safe. Every day they see each other..
(十三)a. The judge said he sympathized with Buckeyes being upset over her long court ordeal, very upset does not state a cause of action.
b. Indeed, in my opinion, not guilty does not necessarily mean innocent.
c. Such a scheme would not necessarily (really should not) record the bias of progress, for geologically young does not mean anatomically complex ...
四、英語形容詞做主語時的語境特點
從上文中所舉例句可以看出,英語形容詞做主語時主要出現(xiàn)在有回聲(Sperber & Wilson, 1995)現(xiàn)象的語境里。最常見的回聲語境是對話語境,即說話人A使用了一個形容詞,說話人B接著就使用該形容詞做主語,上面大多數(shù)例句都屬于這種情況?;蛘呤峭粋€說話人,在使用一個形容詞之后,接著使用該形容詞做主語(14),偶爾也會出現(xiàn)形容詞先做主語的情況(15)。
(十四)“The two of you are very different...,” she said. “Different is right.”
(十五)Mind if I tell you something,Ink?Serious is your whole problem. Youre too serious.
無論是哪一種情況,第一次出現(xiàn)的形容詞一般是做謂語,上面所舉例句基本上都是這樣。也有第一次出現(xiàn)的形容詞做定語的情況(16),但相對來說比較少見。
(十六)The forum will soon be joined by a new hotel and garden complex that will further update Monacos profile. New is good for business, but Monaco still does well by its traditional attractions.
除了前后使用兩個完全相同的形容詞,英語形容詞做主語出現(xiàn)的回聲語境還有其他多種表現(xiàn)形式,比較明確的語境比如前后使用同根詞的不同形式(17a)或者前后兩個形容詞都同屬于一個維度(17b):
(十七)a. I whistled softly and rubbed my hands together to assure me this was reality... Real seems fake. It gets easier to pull out later.
b. Warm tap water is good. Hot is not better.
也有比較隱晦的回聲語境,比如后面使用的形容詞闡釋了前面的語境,(18a)里“new”闡釋了“beginners”的某方面的屬性,(18b)里的“sure”表達出了前面“He nods”的含義,(18c)里的“unusual”是對前一句“他們本來也是容易得到壞運氣的”所傳遞含義“他們有了不同尋常的結果”的總結。
(十八)a. Beginners luck? Maybe. But new isnt always good.
b. Is it really so serious? I say. My brother puts down the mug. He rubs his face. He nods. —Sure is awful. He doesnt answer.
c. “They could just as easily be bad luck. Unusual is not necessarily good,” Bernie mused.
或者后面使用的形容詞是前面提到維度或?qū)ο蟮囊环N具體體現(xiàn)或評價,例如,(19a)里“stupid”是“many things”的一個個案,(19b)里的“big”“high”和“wide”都是前面“scale”的具體體現(xiàn)。
(十九)a. Hes many things, but stupid isnt one of them.
b. Most critically, the man knew scale. He knew how big was too big, how high was too high, and how wide was too wide.
英語形容詞出現(xiàn)在主語位置時唯一不需要上下文語境的情況是在表示強調(diào)的等同性系詞句里,此時原本位于be動詞后做謂語的形容詞作為被強調(diào)的對象出現(xiàn)在主語位置上,例如:
(二十)a. Proud of his daughters seems to be what he is. (Heycock & Kroch, 1999)
b. Honest is what I want him to be. (ibid)
結語:本文主要對英語形容詞出現(xiàn)在主語位置上的現(xiàn)象進行了考察,從形容詞主語所在的句子結構、做主語的形容詞的類別、做主語的形容詞的形式以及形容詞做主語時的語境四個方面闡釋了形容詞做主語時的一些特點:形容詞做主語時以出現(xiàn)在系詞句中為主,出現(xiàn)在非系詞句中為輔;做主語的形容詞以核心形容詞為主,邊緣形容詞為輔;做主語的形容詞以原級為主比較級和最高級為輔,以光桿形式為主受副詞修飾為輔;形容詞做主語時出現(xiàn)的語境以回聲語境為主強調(diào)語境為輔。
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注釋:本文中以下英語例句除特別標明外均來自于COCA語料庫。
作者簡介:
高娟(1981年—),女,河南扶溝人,講師,博士,研究方向:句法學。