潘善越,周嬌銳,于蓉,劉曼,袁杰利,李明
1.大連市第二人民醫(yī)院 檢驗(yàn)科,遼寧 大連 116011;2.大連醫(yī)科大學(xué) 基礎(chǔ)醫(yī)學(xué)院微生態(tài)學(xué)教研室,遼寧 大連 116044;3. 大連市第二人民醫(yī)院 藥劑科,遼寧 大連 116011
腸道微生物對(duì)新生兒免疫激活和身體的發(fā)育非常重要。哺乳能夠促使母乳源型微生物(MOM)的形成,MOM的作用是促進(jìn)健康的腸道菌群的形成,并且抑制病原菌[1]。健康的腸道菌群的發(fā)育取決于母親、嬰兒和復(fù)雜環(huán)境相互作用。在出生時(shí),腸道菌群波動(dòng)性較大,經(jīng)歷最初幾年的幾個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)變之后才趨于穩(wěn)定[2-3]。開始的菌群主要通過(guò)飲食衍生,而母乳喂養(yǎng)為腸道菌群的建立提供了良好的機(jī)會(huì),母乳成分中特有的物質(zhì)可以支持腸道菌群健康的發(fā)展[4]。
母乳中的生長(zhǎng)因子、蛋白質(zhì)、抗體、細(xì)菌和糖鏈等物質(zhì)不僅促進(jìn)嬰兒身體的健康發(fā)育,還能夠幫助嬰兒形成健康的腸道菌群[5]。腸道菌群的重要性已由眾多科學(xué)文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道[6-9],它們對(duì)食物成分的吸收、營(yíng)養(yǎng)成分的有效利用和免疫功能都起著重要作用[10-14]。例如,早期對(duì)無(wú)菌小鼠的研究就表明無(wú)菌腸道會(huì)導(dǎo)致免疫、代謝、淋巴結(jié)發(fā)育不良,產(chǎn)生免疫細(xì)胞的異常[15-16],后來(lái)的無(wú)菌小鼠糞便微生物檢測(cè)也證實(shí)了這點(diǎn)[6,8,17]。盡管人們了解腸道微生物對(duì)人類健康的影響,但是怎樣構(gòu)建一個(gè)健康的腸道菌群結(jié)構(gòu),我們卻知之甚少。
隨著剖宮產(chǎn)率的升高、抗生素和環(huán)境消毒劑使用量的增加以及多種喂養(yǎng)(母乳喂養(yǎng)、配方奶粉、混合喂養(yǎng)和互補(bǔ)喂養(yǎng))方式的改變,破壞了MOM的形成。嬰兒出生后3~4個(gè)月內(nèi)喂養(yǎng)母乳能否有效幫助形成MOM還處于研究階段,肥胖、炎癥等相關(guān)疾病,如腸易激綜合征和Crohn氏病、過(guò)敏性疾病可能都與破壞MOM形成密切相關(guān)[18-20]。嬰幼兒早期配方奶粉或固體食物對(duì)成年后的健康菌群影響仍需進(jìn)一步研究。新技術(shù)的發(fā)展為研究人員了解飲食對(duì)腸道健康菌群的建立提供了優(yōu)越的條件,為了綜合認(rèn)識(shí)母乳和腸道菌群的關(guān)系,我們必須了解母體的因素如何影響MOM與嬰兒的健康。這篇綜述主要集中討論母乳的多糖和糖基化蛋白對(duì)腸道菌群的影響,以及母體基因型和表型如何影響MOM,從而了解這些因素如何影響腸道菌群的健康建立[21]。
與其他食物喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒相比純母乳喂養(yǎng)能夠促進(jìn)MOM的生長(zhǎng),為嬰兒健康成長(zhǎng)帶來(lái)很大的益處。通過(guò)對(duì)母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒糞便細(xì)菌的檢測(cè),發(fā)現(xiàn)其中雙歧桿菌的數(shù)量占總菌數(shù)的70%~80%,B.longum、B.breve是最常見的菌種[22],通過(guò)菌種基因檢測(cè)發(fā)現(xiàn)母乳中嬰兒難消化的復(fù)雜的糖結(jié)構(gòu)是這些細(xì)菌的重要食物來(lái)源[23]。
關(guān)于MOM中為何存在高含量的B.infantis(嬰兒雙歧桿菌)現(xiàn)在仍然未得到答案。B.infantis到底從何而來(lái)?在嚴(yán)格的母乳喂養(yǎng)環(huán)境中雙歧桿菌屬是如何影響其他菌群的?已經(jīng)有證據(jù)顯示早期嬰兒腸道菌群是通過(guò)降低腸道環(huán)境中的pH來(lái)形成,也被妊娠時(shí)間[24-26]、分娩方式(順產(chǎn)、剖宮產(chǎn))[27]以及潛在的分娩環(huán)境(醫(yī)院、家庭)所影響[24,28]。順產(chǎn)嬰兒的腸道菌群與母親的陰道菌群相似,其中占主導(dǎo)地位的是Lactobacillus(乳桿菌屬)或Sneathia(纖毛菌屬),而經(jīng)剖腹產(chǎn)出生的嬰兒腸道菌群與皮膚表面發(fā)現(xiàn)的金黃色葡萄球菌、棒狀桿菌、丙酸桿菌屬相似[27]。比較10種主要的雙歧桿菌發(fā)現(xiàn)剖腹產(chǎn)出生的嬰兒沒有雙歧桿菌,而順產(chǎn)新生兒腸道菌群以雙歧桿菌為主[29]。早產(chǎn)兒菌群的種類也沒有足月嬰兒那么豐富,可能是與醫(yī)院環(huán)境、剖宮產(chǎn)和使用抗生素有關(guān)[30-31]。
母乳喂養(yǎng)提供了連續(xù)不斷的細(xì)菌來(lái)源。Martin等[32]2003年指出:母乳是沒有被外源性皮膚污染的內(nèi)源性乳酸菌的來(lái)源,嬰兒腸道菌群建立的假設(shè)中進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)調(diào)了母親的健康狀況的重要性,因?yàn)樗婕暗酵庠葱院蛢?nèi)源性微生物環(huán)境。Hunt等[33]在2011年研究發(fā)現(xiàn)9種核心細(xì)菌屬(金黃色葡萄球菌、鏈球菌、沙雷菌屬、銅綠假單胞菌、棒狀桿菌、青枯菌、痤瘡丙酸桿菌、鞘氨醇單胞菌和慢性根瘤菌)約占母乳中細(xì)菌總數(shù)的50%。在口腔、皮膚和乳腺組織也發(fā)現(xiàn)鏈球菌和葡萄球菌是最豐富的種屬[27,34]。Martin等[35]2009年檢測(cè)早期牛奶樣品,采用PCR-變性梯度凝膠電泳,確定雙歧桿菌的存在,然而,這種屬只是牛奶微生物中的一個(gè)小成員。
關(guān)于母乳中菌群的起源有多種解釋,一種解釋是菌群來(lái)自乳頭和周圍的皮膚[36-37],另一種解釋是細(xì)菌可能是從嬰兒口腔轉(zhuǎn)移到乳管,從而達(dá)到母親與嬰兒的穩(wěn)態(tài)平衡[38],這符合逆行流的理論,即在哺乳期間,嬰兒口腔白斑寄居的鏈球菌、纖毛菌、普雷沃菌等頻繁出現(xiàn)在母乳中[39],不過(guò),到目前為止母乳中菌群的來(lái)源不僅包含皮膚和口腔的菌群,也包含腸道菌群。對(duì)母親是否通過(guò)她的免疫系統(tǒng)介導(dǎo)把腸道菌群轉(zhuǎn)移到乳汁中的研究中,作者發(fā)現(xiàn)無(wú)菌采集的人乳中含有活菌,其乳汁細(xì)胞中含有完整的細(xì)菌結(jié)構(gòu)。此外,這些細(xì)菌含有比腸道細(xì)菌更多的生物多樣性的核糖體DNA。對(duì)于母乳中的微生物的起源與重要性,以及它們是如何導(dǎo)致嬰兒腸道菌群的變化仍未完全明確。上述研究仍然只是小樣本研究,需要更加標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的方法來(lái)創(chuàng)造一個(gè)大數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù),了解母乳中菌群對(duì)嬰幼兒腸道菌群發(fā)育的影響。
另外,分子營(yíng)養(yǎng)技術(shù)研究表明:肥胖和正常體重孕婦在剖宮產(chǎn)和順產(chǎn)生育嬰兒時(shí),嬰兒腸道菌群的組成和發(fā)育受母體體重指數(shù)、孕期體重增加的影響,如母親的體重指數(shù)與擬桿菌屬、梭狀芽胞桿菌和葡萄球菌的濃度呈正相關(guān),與嬰兒雙歧桿菌濃度呈負(fù)相關(guān)[40],此外,還發(fā)現(xiàn)二胎嬰兒對(duì)比一胎嬰兒有稍高數(shù)量的雙歧桿菌[4]。
從成分上來(lái)說(shuō),人乳中含有大量的嬰兒難以消化的低聚糖和人類母乳糖(HMG),HMG是一個(gè)龐大的多糖的組合體,包括乳寡糖(HMO)、糖蛋白、糖肽、雙歧桿菌糖脂。這些豐富的糖復(fù)合物對(duì)細(xì)菌起有益生作用,其中HMO有助于菌群在嬰兒腸道中的長(zhǎng)期定植。Chichlowski等[41]2012年證明,在HMO與乳糖的體外生長(zhǎng)比較中,與HMO結(jié)合的腸上皮細(xì)胞有所增加。與乳糖相比,當(dāng)嬰兒雙歧桿菌與HMO同時(shí)被接種時(shí),產(chǎn)生炎性細(xì)胞因子會(huì)減少,而抗炎細(xì)胞因子的釋放增加。HMO是由葡萄糖、半乳糖、巖藻糖和唾液酸等單糖組成。初乳中HMO的濃度約為23 g/L,成熟人乳中約為7 g/L[42-43]。HMO的功能以及對(duì)細(xì)菌菌群多樣性的影響是重要的研究課題。乳腺中HMO的生物合成是以半乳糖和葡萄糖形成乳糖核心,由β-半乳糖基轉(zhuǎn)移酶催化的α-乳白蛋白為起點(diǎn)所形成的。除了少數(shù)特例,所有的HMO都包含了一個(gè)乳糖核心[44]。HMO可以被多種酶糖基化,其中包括被巖藻糖基化[45]。
通過(guò)測(cè)定巖藻寡糖的結(jié)構(gòu)與濃度,來(lái)證明產(chǎn)婦基因型如何影響人乳組成,隨后如何影響嬰兒腸道菌群[45-46]。經(jīng)測(cè)定女性的淚液、唾液、人乳能夠表達(dá)一定水平的α-1,2-巖藻糖基轉(zhuǎn)移酶的婦女稱為分泌者,其擁有功能性FUT2基因,非分泌者是指產(chǎn)生低水平的FUT2酶的婦女[47],被分泌型母親母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒,對(duì)腸道病原菌引起的中度或重度腹瀉有抵抗作用,原因是HMO有對(duì)病原菌的結(jié)合位點(diǎn),從而減少病原菌與腸上皮細(xì)胞結(jié)合位點(diǎn)的接觸[45,48],這可能是分泌型母親能產(chǎn)生更多的游離人乳寡糖。而非分泌型母親沒有α-1,2-巖藻糖基轉(zhuǎn)移酶連接的巖藻糖基化HMOs,但增加了三乳酰-N-巖藻五糖的濃度。母體表型特征也可能影響HMO的組成,BMI為14~18的母親比BMI為24~28的母親的HMO含量明顯偏低[49],很少有研究會(huì)考慮母體表型存在差異,甚至更少有研究把分泌型和非分泌型母親對(duì)微生物的影響和嬰兒腸道功能聯(lián)系起來(lái)。因此更全面系統(tǒng)地對(duì)母乳成分的變化進(jìn)行研究對(duì)促進(jìn)嬰兒的健康具有重要的作用。
為了促進(jìn)有益細(xì)菌的生長(zhǎng),培養(yǎng)健康的腸道生態(tài)系統(tǒng),對(duì)潛在有害微生物的生長(zhǎng)進(jìn)行限制是有必要的。腸道中有益有害的細(xì)菌很難分開,減少有害細(xì)菌的數(shù)量便可以解放出有益微生物的生態(tài)位置。糖基化母乳蛋白質(zhì)如乳鐵蛋白、溶菌酶、免疫球蛋白影響腸道有害微生物的生長(zhǎng)繁殖,具有保護(hù)嬰兒免受感染的功能[50-52]。在嬰兒腸道內(nèi)糖基化蛋白質(zhì)成為抵御潛在病原菌致病的第一道防線,常以重疊的機(jī)制發(fā)揮其保護(hù)作用。這些物質(zhì)不但能影響腸道菌群生長(zhǎng),還能在調(diào)節(jié)嬰兒免疫系統(tǒng)和刺激上皮屏障功能中發(fā)揮作用。
溶菌酶存在于多種哺乳動(dòng)物的乳汁中,能夠水解細(xì)菌細(xì)胞壁肽聚糖,導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞溶解。這是有效的抵抗革蘭陽(yáng)性菌(如鏈球菌和芽胞桿菌)感染的物質(zhì)。相比其他牛奶(0.130 mg/mL)和山羊奶(0.250 mg/mL),人乳中溶菌酶含量更高,能夠達(dá)到400 mg/mL[53]。
乳鐵蛋白在母乳中是最豐富的糖蛋白[54],并且對(duì)鐵有極高的親和力。它的結(jié)構(gòu)和功能已被廣泛的研究[55-57],乳鐵蛋白對(duì)新生兒鐵代謝起著關(guān)鍵作用,能夠促進(jìn)腸道更好的吸收營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)[58]。乳鐵蛋白在嬰兒的腸道中被消化吸收,并釋放乳鐵蛋白肽。乳鐵蛋白肽比乳鐵蛋白具有更強(qiáng)大的抗菌活性[59]。乳鐵蛋白還具有多種免疫調(diào)節(jié)功能,這些功能可能會(huì)受到母乳中糖基化模式的影響,并在哺乳過(guò)程中產(chǎn)生變化[60-61]。
各類免疫球蛋白在母乳中也可檢測(cè)到,含量最多的是分泌型IgA(sIgA)。因?yàn)閶雰好庖呦到y(tǒng)沒有發(fā)育成熟,自身不能產(chǎn)生足夠數(shù)量sIgA,所以嬰兒比較依賴母乳中的sIgA,當(dāng)年齡增長(zhǎng)至5歲sIgA的分泌量就可達(dá)到成人水平[62]。人乳sIgA能夠幫助抵抗越過(guò)黏膜進(jìn)入母乳中的病原菌,尤其是消化道中的霍亂弧菌、大腸埃希菌、沙門菌和志賀菌等導(dǎo)致腹瀉的常見致病菌[63-64],這些菌也是全球兒童(<5歲)死亡的第二大原因[65]。人乳免疫球蛋白sIgA通過(guò)凝集防止抗原通過(guò)黏膜進(jìn)入全身循環(huán),通過(guò)黏液纖毛清除被黏液包裹的抗原[66],sIgA也可以粘附宿主細(xì)胞,阻止進(jìn)入的細(xì)菌對(duì)受體細(xì)胞的附著,起到預(yù)防感染的作用[67]。Perrier等[68]2006年研究表明從初乳中分離sIgA,可與致病性大腸埃希菌連接,從而保護(hù)上皮細(xì)胞免受細(xì)菌感染、入侵。
另外母體表型已被證明影響免疫球蛋白聚糖的組成與水平,例如,診斷為2型糖尿病的女性相比于正常女性母乳中IgA、IgG和補(bǔ)體C3濃度降低了30%。Smilowitz等[69]2013年分析研究顯示:HMO含量在妊娠期糖尿病婦女與正常婦女間沒有差異,但蛋白和低聚糖的組成及sIgA、乳鐵蛋白卻有顯著不同。具體來(lái)說(shuō),妊娠期糖尿病婦女,甘露糖、巖藻糖和唾液酸殘基的濃度下降了43%。目前妊娠期糖尿病女性母乳中乳糖基化糖蛋白的改變對(duì)嬰兒腸道菌群的影響尚未被研究。
嬰兒腸道菌群的良好發(fā)育對(duì)其健康成長(zhǎng)有著深遠(yuǎn)意義。斷奶前期即出生3~4個(gè)月,是一個(gè)關(guān)鍵時(shí)期,對(duì)腸道菌群的定植和建立正常的腸道屏障功能起重要作用。飲食、環(huán)境因素、分娩方式與抗生素接觸程度都對(duì)腸道微生物數(shù)量和多樣性發(fā)揮著顯著作用。母乳是嬰兒營(yíng)養(yǎng)的重要來(lái)源,它不僅提供聚糖、蛋白和不同類型的免疫因子,同時(shí)在嬰兒的腸道中也播種細(xì)菌菌種。最近的數(shù)據(jù)表明,母體基因型和表型特征可能影響母乳糖物質(zhì)的數(shù)量、組成和功能。母體表型特征對(duì)嬰兒腸道微生物組成和未來(lái)健康的影響值得進(jìn)一步調(diào)查。通過(guò)對(duì)大量的母親嬰兒組對(duì)的數(shù)據(jù)分析,將會(huì)為嬰兒代謝、免疫、腸道菌群的建立提供強(qiáng)有力的證據(jù)。本課題組正在開展這方面研究。
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