吳超 陳孝平
?
· 綜 述·
疑似急性闌尾炎的診斷與治療
吳超 陳孝平
疑似急性闌尾炎通常因臨床表現(xiàn)不典型而有著較高的誤診誤治率。如何減少該病的陰性手術率并控制闌尾穿孔率是目前臨床研究的熱點。全面的病史搜集、反復細致的體格檢查及選擇性的實驗室或影像學檢查有助于提高疑似急性闌尾炎診斷的準確率。疑似病例一旦確診為急性闌尾炎,在抗生素治療無效時,及時的闌尾切除術常常是獲益的。
闌尾炎;闌尾切除術;誤診;診斷;治療
急性闌尾炎為外科急腹癥常見原因,由Fitz最先正確報道。該病的發(fā)病率約為0.1%,各年齡段人群均可發(fā)病[1-2]。臨床實踐中,大約1/3的病人缺乏典型的急性闌尾炎臨床表現(xiàn),但經過影像學檢查或手術確診為急性闌尾炎,我們把這類病人歸為疑似急性闌尾炎群體。為了解國際上研究該疾病的現(xiàn)況,我們以“appendicitis”或“appendectomy”為檢索詞在PubMed數(shù)據庫中檢索,排除資料不全及新技術的診斷試驗,選擇樣本量大于500例,2011年1月至2014年10月發(fā)表的文獻進行分析。文獻顯示,急性闌尾炎的診治過程中有兩個重要指標:陰性手術率和闌尾穿孔率(表1)[3-15]。陰性手術率是指以闌尾炎為術前診斷進行手術,術中發(fā)現(xiàn)闌尾正?;蜃罱K病理結果提示闌尾無炎癥表現(xiàn)的病例數(shù)占總手術病例數(shù)的比率;闌尾穿孔率定義為通過影像學檢查或手術證實闌尾穿孔的病人在所有疑似闌尾炎病人中的比率。所以,臨床醫(yī)生管理疑似闌尾炎病人時如何平衡這兩種比率對于闌尾炎的整體預后有著重要影響。通過回顧目前最新研究,我們希望能提供疑似急性闌尾炎診治策略。
雖然疑似闌尾炎病人癥狀和體征不典型,但病史、體格檢查及對其背后病理生理學機制的理解在診斷中仍有著不可替代的作用。急性闌尾炎的典型表現(xiàn)為轉移性右下腹痛和右下腹固定壓痛,若炎癥累及壁腹膜則表現(xiàn)出腹膜刺激征,這三種征象被認為最有診斷價值。此外,部分病人可伴有胃腸道及全身炎癥反應等癥狀。一些特殊的體格檢查,如結腸充氣試驗(Rovsing征)和腰大肌試驗(Psoas征)對確診也有積極意義。值得一提的是,疼痛持續(xù)時間及轉移性疼痛的間隔時間對于其他原因引起的右下腹痛有著鑒別價值[16]。文獻表明,直腸指診總體上對疑似闌尾炎病人無確診價值[17-18],但對盆腔闌尾炎、闌尾周圍膿腫等特殊情況仍有提示作用。Wagner等[19-20]對急性闌尾炎文獻分析并統(tǒng)計出這些臨床表現(xiàn)的敏感度和特異度[19-21],詳見表2。
根據Yu等[22]結果,多數(shù)急性闌尾炎病人的血白細胞計數(shù)(WBC)、中性粒細胞比例及其他如C反應蛋白(CRP)、降鈣素原(PCT)等炎癥指標升高。但這些指標不能獨立作為急性闌尾炎的診斷標準,對鑒別其他疾病引起的右下腹痛也無意義。育齡期婦女常規(guī)檢查血清β-人絨毛膜促性腺激素(β-hCG)有著重要的鑒別價值,而尿常規(guī)篩查也可明確腹痛是否與右側泌尿系結石相關。
除了體格檢查和實驗室檢查外,Alvarado等[23]報道一種診斷急性闌尾炎的臨床方案(表2)。該方案納入了急性闌尾炎病人常見的9種臨床表現(xiàn)并賦值,為臨床診斷提供了量化指標[23]。該評分共10分,得分5~8分為疑似闌尾炎。相對于Alvarado評分用于全體人群而言,Samuel的PAS(pedi-atric appendicitis score)方案在兒童疑似闌尾炎病例中有著更高的精度[24]。除了上述兩種評分外,有學者根據不同情況又改良出一些新的評分方案,但有前瞻性隨機研究表明,在診斷疑似闌尾炎時,經驗豐富的臨床醫(yī)師其臨床判斷的準確性優(yōu)于上述臨床評分[25]。
表1 入選的近3年有關急性闌尾炎的英文文獻
表2 急性闌尾炎臨床表現(xiàn)診斷效能及評分方案
注:a.PAS方案中還包括兒童群體特異的癥狀:咳嗽、拍擊、捶足,賦值為2;b.Alvarado方案中發(fā)熱標準為T>37.3℃,PAS方案中發(fā)熱標準為T>38.0℃;N:中性粒細胞比例
對于通過臨床評價無法確診的病人,合理的影像學檢查可顯著降低陰性手術率,但對于檢查所帶來的手術延遲是否增加穿孔率目前還有爭議。常規(guī)腹部平片對大部分疑似闌尾炎僅有鑒別價值。研究表明,疑似闌尾炎病人超聲顯示完整的正常闌尾有較強的排除價值,且能降低陰性手術探查率[26]。對于超聲無法直接顯示闌尾,若出現(xiàn)一些如高回聲的系膜脂肪、積液等繼發(fā)性征象,也有一定確診價值[27]。在兒童群體中,逐步加壓超聲檢查法其準確性為70%~95%,若結合臨床評分,其確診價值更高[28]。超聲檢查可顯示闌尾腫瘤、卵巢囊腫、異位妊娠、腫大的腸系膜淋巴結等,對疑似闌尾炎的鑒別診斷有重要價值。當然,鑒于超聲檢查受操作者經驗和被檢查者胖瘦情況影響大,當無法顯示闌尾且無繼發(fā)表現(xiàn)或顯示結果不確定時,該方法診斷價值大大降低[29],此時CT檢查可作為替代檢查手段[30]。但CT檢查費用較高、產生電離輻射及等待時間長限制了其在臨床中的廣泛應用。對于兒童和孕婦,作者不推薦常規(guī)使用CT。然而在成年人中,在住院觀察期內選擇性CT掃描不但能明確闌尾炎診斷,還有可能發(fā)現(xiàn)引起癥狀的其他原因,而這些原因常需要住院手術治療[31]。CT掃描盡可能行腹盆腔全掃,如有條件可行薄層掃描并冠狀位重建[32-33]。對超聲結果不確定且不宜行CT檢查的孕婦及兒童,MRI可作為一種補充檢查手段[34-35]。文獻證實,MRI的應用能夠減少陰性手術探查率,對闌尾穿孔率也無顯著影響[36]。
當疑似闌尾炎病人通過上述方法確診困難時,診斷性的腹腔鏡探查便有獨特優(yōu)勢。它能直觀顯示闌尾情況,并可鑒別與急性闌尾炎有相似表現(xiàn)的其他病因,對確診有決定性作用[2]。若是探查確診急性闌尾炎,可同期行闌尾切除術。該方法最大缺點在于有創(chuàng)性,病人需要全身麻醉,費用高,檢查也相應帶來不可忽視的并發(fā)癥。如果不嚴格控制指征,該種方法可帶來較高的陰性手術率。
疑似闌尾炎的臨床表現(xiàn)千變萬化。在診治過程中,病史和體檢結果起著根本作用,所以處理疑似闌尾炎病人時積極動態(tài)的臨床觀察十分必要。在觀察的同時,有條件可行影像學檢查除外其他疾病的可能。通常,CT可用于成年男性及未妊娠的女性病人。鑒于CT檢查帶來的電離輻射,兒童和孕婦可選擇超聲檢查,若超聲結果不明確時,可選擇性行MRI掃描。
經典觀念認為,急性闌尾炎一經確診,應該行闌尾切除術以避免可能出現(xiàn)的穿孔等并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生。但近來一些研究表明,疾病早期行抗生素保守治療也可獲得較好的臨床結局,2年隨訪疼痛復發(fā)率小于14%,總體有效性達83%[37]。一般來講,抗生素保守治療可用于以下情況:①疑似闌尾炎癥狀輕、發(fā)病時間短;②延遲診斷超過48 h病變局限;③診斷不明確,需要觀察的期間;④病人情況不宜手術或拒絕手術;⑤術前準備過程。在抗生素選擇上,多選擇廣譜抗菌藥物,注意要覆蓋厭氧菌。以往聯(lián)合使用青霉素和鏈霉素,效果滿意[1-2],近年來二三代頭孢加甲硝唑有著更優(yōu)的療效。對于決定立即行手術治療的病人,應做好術前準備,并根據病人個體情況選擇不同手術方式。目前文獻支持腹腔鏡闌尾切除術在術后并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率、術后住院時間方面優(yōu)于傳統(tǒng)的闌尾切除術[38-39]。面對經過完善檢查仍不能確診急性闌尾炎的病人,臨床醫(yī)師可動態(tài)觀察病人病情變化,同時行補液抗感染治療。當病情無緩解甚至加重時,應考慮行診斷性腹腔鏡檢查。若觀察病人情況好轉或經過檢查無陽性提示,通常予以對癥支持治療。筆者結合文獻總結出疑似闌尾炎診治流程(圖1),希望能對臨床實踐有實際指導作用。
圖1 疑似急性闌尾炎診斷與治療流程圖
目前為止,國內外暫無權威組織推出對于疑似急性闌尾炎的診治指南。在臨床實踐中,準確及時的診斷和治療通常很困難,這就要求臨床醫(yī)師準確地采集病史和反復細致地體格檢查。一線臨床醫(yī)師常常經驗不足,如果參考臨床評分能減少誤診誤治率。疑似闌尾炎病人臨床表現(xiàn)通常不典型,有時需進一步影像學檢查。選擇性的影像學檢查結合臨床評分會提高診斷的準確性。但影像學檢查易受到檢查者主觀影響,所以臨床醫(yī)師不應全部依賴于影像學檢查結果,而是要對病史、體格檢查和相關輔助檢查結果綜合分析。對待兒童、孕婦、老年人疑似該病,要按照疾病人群的特點做好個體化的診治。
綜上所述,疑似闌尾炎診治中應充分考慮各種導致相似癥狀疾病的可能,仔細認真收集臨床資料,積極動態(tài)分析檢查結果,做出最利于病人的治療方式。
1 吳孟超,吳在德,主編.黃家駟外科學.第7版.北京:人民衛(wèi)生出版社,2008.1572.
2 陳孝平,汪建平,主編.外科學.第8版.北京:人民衛(wèi)生出版社,2013.385-392.
3 Farooqui W, Pommergaard HC, Burcharth J, et al. The diagnostic value of a panel of serological markers in acute appendicitis. Scand J Surg, 2014,1-7.
4 Park JH, Group L. Diagnostic imaging utilization in cases of acute appendicitis: multi-center experience. J Korean Med Sci, 2014, 29:1308-1316.
5 Cheong LH, Emil S. Determinants of appendicitis outcomes in Canadian children. J Pediatr Surg, 2014, 49:777-781.
6 Seetahal SA, Bolorunduro OB, Sookdeo TC, et al. Negative appendectomy: a 10-year review of a nationally representative sample. Am J Surg, 2011, 201:433-437.
7 Aarabi S, Sidhwa F, Riehle KJ, et al. Pediatric appendicitis in New England: epidemiology and outcomes. J Pediatr Surg, 2011, 46:1106-1114.
8 Drake FT, Florence MG, Johnson MG, et al. Progress in the diagnosis of appendicitis: a report from Washington State's Surgical Care and Outcomes Assessment Program. Ann Surg, 2012, 256:586-594.
9 Naiditch JA, Lautz TB, Daley S, et al. The implications of missed opportunities to diagnose appendicitis in children. Acad Emerg Med, 2013, 20:592-596.
10Bates MF, Khander A, Steigman SA, et al. Use of white blood cell count and negative appendectomy rate. Pediatrics, 2014, 133:e39-e44.
11Guller U, Rosella L, Mccall J, et al. Negative appendicectomy and perforation rates in patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery for suspected appendicitis. Br J Surg, 2011, 98:589-595.
12Charfi S, Sellami A, Affes A, et al. Histopathological findings in appendectomy specimens: a study of 24,697 cases. Int J Colorectal Dis, 2014, 29:1009-1012.
13Kahramanca S, Ozgehan G, Seker D, et al. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio as a predictor of acute appendicitis. Ulus Travma Acil Cerrahi Derg,2014,20:19-22.
14Hornby ST, Shahtahmassebi G, Lynch S, et al. Delay to surgery does not influence the pathological outcome of acute appendicitis. Scand J Surg, 2014, 103:5-11.
15Singh P, Turner EJ, Cornish J, et al. Safety assessment of resident grade and supervision level during emergency appendectomy: analysis of a multicenter, prospective study. Surgery, 2014, 156:28-38.
16Andersson RE, Hugander AP, Ghazi SH, et al. Why does the clinical diagnosis fail in suspected appendicitis?. Eur J Surg, 2000, 166:796-802.
17Sedlak M, Wagner OJ, Wild B, et al. Is there still a role for rectal examination in suspected appendicitis in adults?. Am J Emerg Med, 2008, 26:359-360.
18胡學斌,易自力,李良學.結腸癌誤診為闌尾炎的臨床分析.腹部外科,2014,27:61-63.
19Wagner JM, Mckinney WP, Carpenter JL. Does this patient have appendicitis?.JAMA,1996,276:1589-1594.
20Witt K, M?kel? M,Olsen O. Likelihood ratios to determine‘does this patient have appendicitis?’: comment and clarification. JAMA, 1997, 278:819-820.
21Jahn H,Mathiesen FK,Neckelmann K,et al. Comparison of clinical judgment and diagnostic ultrasonography in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis: experience with a score-aided diagnosis. Eur J Surg, 1997,163:433-443.
22Yu CW, Juan LI, Wu MH, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of procalcitonin, C-reactive protein and white blood cell count for suspected acute appendicitis. Br J Surg, 2013,100:322-329.
23Alvarado A. A practical score for the early diagnosis of acute appendicitis. Ann Emerg Med,1986,15:557-564.
24Saucier A, Huang EY, Emeremni CA, et al. Prospective evaluation of a clinical pathway for suspected appendicitis. Pediatrics, 2014, 133:e88-e95.
25Man E, Simonka Z, Varga A, et al. Impact of the alvarado score on the diagnosis of acute appendicitis: comparing clinical judgment, alvarado score, and a new modified score in suspected appendicitis: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. Surg Endosc,2014,28:2398-2405.
26Scrimgeour DS,Driver CP,Stoner RS, et al. When does ultrasonography influence management in suspected appendicitis?. ANZ J Surg, 2014,84:331-334.
27Wiersma F, Toorenvliet BR, Bloem JL, et al. US examination of the appendix in children with suspected appendicitis: the additional value of secondary signs. Eur Radiol, 2009, 19:455-461.
28Toprak H, Kilincaslan H, Ahmad IC,et al. Integration of ultrasound findings with Alvarado score in children with suspected appendicitis. Pediatr Int, 2014, 56:95-99.
29Taylor GA. Ultrasound scan for suspected appendicitis in children: risk of diagnostic inaccuracy increases with BMI at or above 85th percentile and clinical probability of appendicitis of 50% or lower. Evid Based Med, 2011, 16:91-92.
30Koo HS, Kim HC, Yang DM, et al. Does computed tomography have any additional value after sonography in patients with suspected acute appendicitis?. J Ultrasound Med, 2013, 32: 1397-1403.
31Pooler BD, Lawrence EM, Pickhardt PJ. Alternative diagnoses to suspected appendicitis at CT. Radiology, 2012, 265: 733-742.
32Brassart N, Winant C, Tack D, et al. Optimised z-axis coverage at multidetector-row CT in adults suspected of acute appendicitis. Br J Radiol, 2013, 86: 20130115.
33Kim YJ, Kim JE, Kim HS, et al. MDCT with coronal reconstruction: clinical benefit in evaluation of suspected acute appendicitis in pediatric patients. Am J Roentgenol, 2009, 192: 150-152.
34Flexer SM, Tabib N, Peter MB. Suspected appendicitis in pregnancy. Surgeon, 2014,12:82-86.
35Thieme ME, Leeuwenburgh MM, Valdehueza ZD, et al. Diagnostic accuracy and patient acceptance of MRI in children with suspected appendicitis. Eur Radiol, 2014,24:630-637.
36Rapp EJ, Naim F, Kadivar K, et al. Integrating MR imaging into the clinical workup of pregnant patients suspected of having appendicitis is associated with a lower negative laparotomy rate: single-institution study. Radiology,2013,267:137-144.
37Di Saverio S, Sibilio A, Giorgini E, et al. The NOTA Study (Non Operative Treatment for Acute Appendicitis): prospective study on the efficacy and safety of antibiotics (amoxicillin and clavulanic acid) for treating patients with right lower quadrant abdominal pain and long-term follow-up of conservatively treated suspected appendicitis. Ann Surg,2014,260:109-117.
38Sauerland S, Jaschinski T, Neugebauer EA. Laparoscopic versus open surgery for suspected appendicitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2010: CD001546.
39李文軍, 何前進, 付靈芝. 腹腔鏡手術與傳統(tǒng)開腹手術治療急性闌尾炎療效比較. 腹部外科, 2012, 25:304-305.
Diagnosis and treatment of suspected acute appendicitis
WuChao,ChenXiaoping.
DepartmentofSurgery,TongjiHospital,TongjiMedicalCollege,HuazhongUniversityofScience&Technology,Wuhan430030,China
Correspondingauthor:ChenXiaoping,Email:chenxp@medmail.com.cn
Suspected appendicitis often have high rates of misdiagnosis and mistreatment because of non-typical clinical manifestations. It is currently hotly debated as to how surgeons reduce the rate of negative appendectomy and lower the possibility of appendix perforation. Comprehensive history-taking, detailed & thorough physical examinations and selective laboratory or radiological examinations may improve the diagnostic accuracy of suspected acute appendicitis. Once a definite diagnosis is made, timely appendectomy is normally recommended when antibiotic therapy is ineffective.
Appendicitis; Appendectomy; Misdiagnosis; Diagnosis; Treatment
430030 武漢,華中科技大學同濟醫(yī)學院附屬同濟醫(yī)院外科
陳孝平,Email:chenxp@medmail.com.cn
R656.8
A
10.3969/j.issn.1003-5591.2015.01.020
2014-11-20)