張勇進 郭敬麗 劉衛(wèi) 葉曉峰
?
·抗血管內皮生長因子專題·
抗血管內皮生長因子藥物治療繼發(fā)于炎癥及變性等疾病的脈絡膜新生血管
張勇進 郭敬麗 劉衛(wèi) 葉曉峰
隨著建立在醫(yī)學科學研究基礎上認識的不斷深入,血管內皮生長因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF)被確認是脈絡膜新生血管(choroidal neovascularization, CNV)發(fā)展過程中介導血管生成和血管通透性的主要原因[1-2]。目前所知的VEGF家族包括5個成員:VEGF-A、VEGF-B、VEGF-C、VEGF-D和胎盤生長因子,其中以VEGF-A最為活躍,并與血管生成、新生血管化和血管通透性增強密切相關。VEGF因而成為治療CNV的主要目標。大量的臨床試驗已證明玻璃體腔內注射抗VEGF藥物,可有效阻止?jié)裥阅挲g相關性黃斑變性(wet age-related macular degeneration wAMD)的病理、生理過程,使多數(shù)wAMD患者恢復視網(wǎng)膜的形態(tài)和提高或穩(wěn)定神經(jīng)感覺層功能[2-3]。
抗VEGF藥物治療wAMD的臨床研究及臨床實踐,充分肯定了其對CNV的抑制和治療作用。在此基礎上,很多其他眼底疾病所致的CNV也不斷有適應證外(off-label)應用抗VEGF藥物治療成功的病例,包括炎癥及變性等疾病,如血管樣條紋;炎癥或感染,如組織胞漿菌病、結節(jié)病、多灶性脈絡膜炎(multifocal choroiditis,MC)、點狀內層脈絡膜病變(punctuate inner choroidopathy,PIC);脈絡膜腫瘤(脈絡膜痣、脈絡膜黑色素瘤、脈絡膜血管瘤、脈絡膜骨瘤);創(chuàng)傷(脈絡膜裂傷、激光光凝術)及遺傳性疾病繼發(fā)(Best病)等。另外,一些未檢測到有眼部或全身性疾病的年輕患者發(fā)生CNV,則一般將其列為特發(fā)性CNV[4-7]。這些疾病與wAMD相比雖不多見,但因CNV的發(fā)生往往會造成患者更嚴重的視力損害,甚至失明??筕EGF藥物的使用也給這部分患者帶來了希望[4-7]。
本文將對血管樣條紋、卵黃樣黃斑變性、視網(wǎng)膜色素變性(retinitis pigmentosa,RP)、脈絡膜骨瘤及眼外傷等疾病并發(fā)CNV后的抗VEGF治療及預后情況綜合總結如下。
1889年,Doyne[8]首次報道眼底血管樣條紋病例,描述為“圍繞視盤指向周邊視網(wǎng)膜的不規(guī)則放射狀條紋”;1892年根據(jù)其形態(tài)命名為血管樣條紋[9];1917年,Kofler闡明其發(fā)病機制為Bruch膜的結構改變[10]。目前組織病理學表明主要為Bruch膜的彈性纖維變性及視網(wǎng)膜色素上皮細胞萎縮變性;由于長期變性或眼部受到外力造成Bruch膜破裂,導致了CNV的形成[11]。血管條紋癥常合并全身系統(tǒng)性疾病,以彈力纖維假黃瘤最為常見,其余還有高彈力纖維發(fā)育異常綜合征、畸形性骨病及鐮狀細胞性貧血。血管條紋癥一般沒有癥狀,一旦出現(xiàn)癥狀便累及了中心凹或者黃斑區(qū)域出現(xiàn)了CNV。CNV發(fā)生率為72%~86%。發(fā)生CNV的時間多在中年后。有研究[12]報道平均年齡為50歲,很多患者可能會誤診為wAMD。對于CNV的治療有激光光凝術、光動力療法(photodynamic therapy,PDT)及玻璃體腔注射抗VEGF藥物。激光治療只適用于中心凹外新生血管,中心凹下及中心凹旁的CNV則不能用激光治療[13-14]。對于PDT治療CNV,研究表明治療早期效果較好,但晚期達不到預期效果;PDT可作為治療CNV的輔助療法,減慢CNV的發(fā)展[15-23]。近幾年,抗VEGF藥物治療血管條紋癥繼發(fā)CNV成為了研究的熱點[24-30]。2011年的一個研究[24]報道,對17例(18眼)血管條紋癥繼發(fā)CNV患者,采用貝伐單抗 1.25 mg注射治療,4~6周復查;如仍有積液或熒光滲漏,則重復治療。1年中平均注射4.8次(2~7次),4眼曾接受過平均2次PDT治療。治療后1年,平均視力明顯提高(自20/80到20/40),中心視網(wǎng)膜厚度減少(自404.2 μm到300.5 μm),無明顯眼部及全身并發(fā)癥。因而認為,抗VEGF藥物對患者的視力和解剖形態(tài)都有所改善,有望成為治療血管條紋癥繼發(fā)CNV患者的藥物;但需密切隨訪,必要時可能需重復治療。
另一研究[30]報道,對15眼的中心凹旁或外CNV玻璃體腔注射貝伐單抗治療,觀察1年,平均視力較治療前無明顯提高,但有5眼視力提高2行以上,有2眼CNV進展至中心凹下。平均視力較治療前無明顯提高的結果與以往每月注射雷珠單抗治療1例1年的報道[25]相同。有一綜述[31]總結了近年發(fā)表的激光、PDT及抗VEGF藥物治療的54篇論文,這些報道在多數(shù)缺乏對照的情況下,均得出了抗VEGF治療能夠提高或穩(wěn)定視力;PDT能延緩病情進展但視力只是穩(wěn)定或下降;激光與PDT組治療結果相似,其病例僅限于中心凹外CNV病灶且復發(fā)多見,對視網(wǎng)膜損傷更大。在對PDT和(或)抗VEGF藥物治療約160例數(shù)據(jù)分析后,發(fā)現(xiàn)抗VEGF組最后視力較PDT組高6行,聯(lián)合治療結果比單用抗VEGF治療無明顯優(yōu)勢。治療前的視力與治療效果密切相關,因而認為抗VEGF治療是目前最有效的方法,但遠期療效仍需大樣本及長期隨訪來驗證[24-31]。
我院在治療這類疾病時,既有PDT也有抗VEGF藥物的應用,雖未有系統(tǒng)總結,但臨床觀察發(fā)現(xiàn),抗VEGF藥物治療對提高或穩(wěn)定視力有更大優(yōu)勢(圖1)。
圖1. 血管條紋癥繼發(fā)CNV 上圖:治療前眼底照及相干光斷層掃描(OCT)顯示CNV伴出血水腫,視力0.2;下圖:抗VEGF玻璃體腔注射3次,水腫、出血消失,病灶減小,視力提高至0.4
RP是以視網(wǎng)膜錐桿細胞萎縮為特點的遺傳性疾病,發(fā)病率為1/5 000[32-33]。RP患者有夜盲,進行性周邊視野喪失,最終導致失明[32]。臨床檢查顯示RP患者的視網(wǎng)膜逐漸變薄,部分患者發(fā)現(xiàn)黃斑水腫及視網(wǎng)膜色素上皮功能異常,從而導致視網(wǎng)膜屏障紊亂,進一步導致視力下降[32,34]。RP繼發(fā)CNV的病例也時有報道[35-37],有采用PDT[35]或玻璃體腔注射抗VEGF治療的個案報道[36-37]。玻璃體腔內注射雷珠單抗雖然可以減少RP患者的黃斑厚度及改善水腫情況,但視功能沒有改善[38]。
我院對繼發(fā)于RP的CNV治療也經(jīng)歷了PDT到抗VEGF的發(fā)展過程,目前抗VEGF治療是這類疾病治療的首選方法(圖2)。但因黃斑部本身的退行改變,可能最終只能改善CNV帶來的水腫、出血,而視力改善不明顯。
圖2. 視網(wǎng)膜色素變性繼發(fā)CNV 上圖:治療前眼底彩照見視網(wǎng)膜血管細,后極部色素紊亂,骨細胞樣色素沉著,黃斑有環(huán)狀萎縮,隱約見片狀出血;OCT顯示黃斑部CNV病灶伴水腫,視力0.2;下圖:雷珠單抗玻璃體腔注射2次后眼底彩照和OCT圖,出血、水腫吸收,CNV病灶減小,視力提高至0.4
該病是一種由于VMD2基因突變造成的常染色體顯性遺傳疾病,基因突變造成的bestrophin蛋白改變,使RPEE基底細胞膜的氯離子通道功能受到影響,造成脂褐素堆積。患者兒童期發(fā)病,眼底典型表現(xiàn)為黃斑部的卵黃樣病灶,早期視力可正常,逐漸進入卵黃破裂期、萎縮期、瘢痕期,伴有視力緩慢下降。即使在瘢痕期,很多患者仍可有0.5左右的視力。據(jù)統(tǒng)計約20%的患者可發(fā)生CNV,造成視力突降[39]。這也是患者就診的主要原因。
CNV如位于中心凹下或旁,不適宜激光治療,PDT曾有報道取得較好效果。抗VEGF藥物的出現(xiàn),使治療進入新的階段??筕EGF治療的報道目前均為個案[40-42],藥物均包括雷珠單抗和貝伐單抗,患者年齡最小為6歲[42],取得視力提高。其中Cennamo等[41]報道的病例為雙眼繼發(fā)CNV的男性17歲患者,視力右眼5/10,左眼6/10,玻璃體腔注射1次貝伐單抗1.25 mg,1個月后視力恢復至10/10,并維持至最后隨訪的18個月后。我院也對Best卵黃樣黃斑營養(yǎng)不良繼發(fā)CNV具有一定的臨床經(jīng)驗,治療后患者多為視力穩(wěn)定或無明顯視力提高,可能與其就診時間較晚有關。
葡萄膜炎常常引起黃斑水腫(macular edema, ME)和CNV,導致視功能的損傷;ME主要是由于內層和外層的視網(wǎng)膜屏障功能受損引起,CNV的形成是由于視網(wǎng)膜色素上皮損傷和Bruch膜破壞導致,并有許多細胞因子參與炎癥過程,從而導致血管的滲透性改變和新生血管生成。
Nozik等[43]首次報道MC是一種伴有前葡萄膜炎和玻璃體炎的多發(fā)性脈絡膜視網(wǎng)膜病變,MC和PIC好發(fā)于中青年女性,常伴有近視,眼底有多發(fā)的黃白色病灶。通常情況下,MC的視力預后較好,但一旦出現(xiàn)并發(fā)癥ME和CNV,會導致視力顯著下降;其中CNV更為常見,占27%~32%[44-46]。對于MC繼發(fā)CNV尚無統(tǒng)一的治療方案,激光光凝及PDT等治療方案都存在其局限性[47-52]。全身和局部應用皮質激素治療可控制MC的炎癥,但對于中心凹的CNV的治療效果仍存在爭議[47-48];激光光凝早期治療有效,但激光瘢痕的擴大及較高的復發(fā)率是其最大的缺陷[49-50];還有研究表明PDT治療可以穩(wěn)定中心凹及中心凹旁的CNV患者視力,但并無顯著提高[51-52]。針對這些治療的局限性,有研究[6,53,54]表明使用玻璃體腔內注射抗VEGF治療MC引起的CNV,抗VEGF藥物可有效抑制VEGF引起的促炎作用。Shimada等[55]證實了VEGF參與MC引起CNV的致病機制過程。對于中心凹和中心凹旁的CNV患者,可以考慮玻璃體腔內注射抗VEGF藥物,可提高其視力。
匍行性脈絡膜炎(serpiginouschoroiditis , SC)是一種少見的慢性復發(fā)性葡萄膜炎,常雙側發(fā)病,無性別差異[56]。典型臨床表現(xiàn)為視網(wǎng)膜色素上皮層的灰白(黃)色盤狀病灶,常起始于視乳頭附近,向后極部蔓延;累及黃斑區(qū)可致明顯視力下降。病灶起始于黃斑區(qū)向周圍蔓延病例較少見,可引起早期視力嚴重下降[57]。SC患者的復發(fā)時間由數(shù)周到數(shù)月不等,1/3的患者伴眼前節(jié)和玻璃體炎癥[56,58]。少數(shù)病例合并有視網(wǎng)膜血管炎、視乳頭炎、視網(wǎng)膜分支靜脈阻塞、漿液性視網(wǎng)膜脫離及視盤新生血管[59-61]。高達35%患者并發(fā)CNV[61-64],對于CNV的治療仍存在爭議,1篇病例報道顯示玻璃體腔內注射雷珠單抗可以改善癥狀[65]。
Rouvas等[66]于2011年總結了15例(16眼)葡萄膜炎繼發(fā)CNV經(jīng)雷珠單抗玻璃體腔內注射治療的研究結果,采用每月隨訪,按需重復治療方法,其中2例為SC且均為中心凹下CNV,各注射2次。經(jīng)13~16個月隨訪后,1例視力較基線提高15個字母,中心凹視網(wǎng)膜厚度由274 μm減至252 μm;1例保持基線視力,中心凹視網(wǎng)膜厚度由285 μm減至263 μm。顯示抗VEGF藥物治療SC引起的CNV有一定效果。雖然需要更多的臨床研究來證實抗VEGF藥物治療SC繼發(fā)CNV的療效,但因這類病例較少見,很難實現(xiàn)大規(guī)模的臨床研究。
眼球前部遭受的沖擊力傳導到達眼底的后極部,使眼球橫向擴展,由于脈絡膜抗延伸力不如視網(wǎng)膜,導致視網(wǎng)膜色素上皮、玻璃膜和脈絡膜毛細血管層復合體組織撕裂,而脈絡膜組織的大血管層完整。脈絡膜裂傷可以是直接性,也可以是間接性;80%的脈絡膜裂傷是間接性的[67-68]。間接性通常是閉合性的眼球鈍挫傷。臨床主要表現(xiàn)依據(jù)損傷的程度及部位不同,玻璃體積血導致眼底不能見;較小的脈絡膜出血不易發(fā)現(xiàn),較大的脈絡膜出血呈視網(wǎng)膜下青灰色的圓形隆起;少數(shù)患者可出現(xiàn)CNV。以前研究[69-71]表明眼球的鈍挫傷主要發(fā)生于視乳頭的顳側和黃斑附近。5%~10%的患者在脈絡膜裂傷治愈后發(fā)生CNV,導致視力下降[69-71]。Secretan等[71]報道了79例患者診斷為脈絡膜鈍挫傷(間接性),其中20%的患者發(fā)生CNV。對于CNV的治療,激光光凝術、PDT及手術等治療方案效果均不理想。2006年,Ament等[72]分析了1993~2001年麻省眼耳醫(yī)院111例脈絡膜裂傷的頓挫傷患者,隨訪時間平均20個月,12眼發(fā)生了CNV。其中5眼未行治療,視力均在20/100以下;4例接受激光治療,1例視力達到20/40,其他均在20/60以下;1例激光治療后再行手術治療,視力為指數(shù);1例只進行了手術,視力為20/50;1例行3次PDT治療,出血滲出吸收,1年后視力為20/320。無論是激光還是PDT或手術,視力恢復都不夠理想。
近期有陸續(xù)報道抗VEGF藥物應用于外傷性脈絡膜病變引起CNV的病例[73-75]。Chanana等[73]研究表明,玻璃體腔內注射貝伐單抗治療CNV,視力由0.1提高到0.4。Takahashi等(2011)[75]報道1例43歲男性眼球頓挫傷脈絡膜裂傷繼發(fā)中心凹下CNV,注射貝伐單抗及筋膜囊注射4 mg地塞米松后,14 d后出血、水腫吸收,CNV病灶減小,視力自0.3恢復至0.8并維持至半年后最后1次隨訪。Liang等[76]發(fā)表的病例報告中顯示患者玻璃體腔內注射雷珠單抗并隨訪12個月后,視力由0.5上升到0.8。
我們在臨床中也有1例外傷性脈絡膜裂傷繼發(fā)CNV的年輕患者,治療前視力為0.12,玻璃體腔注射2次雷珠單抗后病變穩(wěn)定,出血、水腫吸收,視力提高至 0.3(圖3)。
脈絡膜骨瘤是一種良性骨性腫瘤,發(fā)病機制目前不清楚,慢性輕度炎癥可能是某些病例的原因。典型病例病灶發(fā)生于視乳頭周圍,多發(fā)生于青春期或成人,以女性多見。病灶呈橘黃色,有偽足邊界清晰,病灶可包繞整個視乳頭,可雙眼發(fā)病。B超顯示骨結構呈高反射,阻擋正常眼眶的回聲。CT對腫瘤診斷有獨到處。脈絡膜骨瘤可有緩慢生長多年,如累及黃斑則會造成視力下降。CNV是累及黃斑部脈絡膜骨瘤的常見并發(fā)癥[77-78],以往治療多采用激光或PDT治療,目前使用抗VEGF治療取得較好結果(圖4)。
圖3. 眼外傷脈絡膜裂傷繼發(fā)CNV 上圖:治療前眼底彩照見累及黃斑中心凹部的脈絡膜弧形裂傷及中心凹處與其相連黃灰色病灶,附近有少量出血; OCT顯示黃斑部中心凹下CNV病灶伴水腫,視力0.12;下圖:雷珠單抗玻璃體腔內注射2次10個月后眼底彩照和OCT圖,出血、水腫吸收,CNV病灶減小,視力提高至0.3
圖4. 脈絡膜骨瘤繼發(fā)CNV 上圖:治療前眼底彩照及OCT圖,骨瘤邊緣見CNV病灶伴出血、水腫,視力0.05;下圖:4次雷珠單抗玻璃體腔內注射后眼底彩照和OCT圖,出血、水腫吸收,CNV病灶減小,視力提高至0.5
抗VEGF藥物的出現(xiàn),為治療伴CNV的眼底疾病提供了新的方法。相對于其他的治療方法,其并發(fā)癥更少。局部應用抗VEGF藥物能有效控制CNV的發(fā)展,并可進行反復玻璃體腔內注射治療復發(fā)病例。但對炎癥和變性疾病所致的CNV,因病例較少,缺乏大規(guī)模臨床研究,因而也很難有標準的治療規(guī)程,尚需借鑒臨床治療wAMD或其他CNV疾病的經(jīng)驗。
[ 1 ] Miller JW, Le Couter J, Strauss EC, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor α in intraocular vascular disease[J]. Ophthalmology, 2013,120(1):106-114.
[ 2 ] Rosenfeld PJ, Brown DM, Heler JS, et al. Ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration[J]. N Engl J Med, 2006,355(14):1416-1431.
[ 3 ] Brown DM,KaiserPK,Michels M, et al. Ranibizumab versus verteporfin for neovascular age-related macular degeneration[J]. N Engl J Med ,2006,355(14):1432-1444.
[ 4 ] Gupta B, Elagouz M, Sivaprasad S. Intravitreal bevacizumab for choroidal neovascularisation secondary to causes other than age-related macular degeneration[J].Eye (Lond), 2010,24(2):203-213.
[ 5 ] Erol MK, Ozdemir O, Coban DT,et al. Ranibizumab treatment for choroidal neovascularization secondary to causes other than age-related macular degeneration with good baseline visual acuity[J]. Semin Ophthalmol,2014 ,29(2):108-113.
[ 6 ] Chang LK, Spaide RF, Brue C,et al. Bevacizumab treatment for subfoveal choroidal neovascularization from causes other than age-related macular degeneration[J]. Arch Ophthalmol, 2008,126(7):941-945.
[ 7 ] Triantafylla M, Massa HF, Dardabounis D, et al. Ranibizumab for the treatment of degenerative ocular conditions[J].Clin Ophthalmol, 2014, 8:1187-1198.
[ 8 ] Doyne RW. Choroidal and retinal changes. The results of blows on the eyes[J]. Trans OphthalmolSoc U K,1889,9:128.
[ 9 ] Knapp H. On the formation of dark angioid streaks as unusual metamorphosis of retinal hemorrhage[J]. Arch Ophthalmol, 1892,26:289-292.
[10] Kofler A. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der angioid Streaks (Knapp)[J]. KIinAugenheilkd, 1917,82:134-149.
[11] Dreyer R,Green WR. The pathology of angioidstreaks:a study of twenty-one cases[J]. Trans Pa Acad Ophthalmol Otolarygol, 1978,31(2):158-167.
[12] Orssaud C, Roche O, Dufier JL,et al.Visual Impairment in Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum: A Survey of 40 Patients[J].Ophthalmic Genet, 2014. Epub ahead of print.
[13] Gelisken O, Hendrikse F, Deutman AF. A long-term follow-up study of laser coagulation of neovascular membranes in angioidstreaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 1988,105(3):299-303.
[14] Lim JI, Bressler NM, Marsh MJ, et al. Laser treatment of choroidal neovascularization in patients with angioidstreaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 1993,116(4):414-423.
[15] Sickenberg M, Schmidt-Erfurth , Miller JW, et al. A preliminary study of photodynamic therapy using verteporfin for choroidal neovascularization in pathologic myopia, ocular histoplasmosis syndrome, angioid streaks, and idiopathic causes[J]. Arch Ophthalmol, 2000,118(3):327-336.
[16] Karacorlu M, Karacorlu S, Ozdemir H, et al. Photodynamic therapy with verteporfin for choroidal neovascularization in patients with angioidstreaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2002,134(3):360-366.
[17] Shaikh S, Ruby AJ, Williams GA. Photodynamic therapy using verteporfin for choroidal neovascularization in angioidstreaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2003,135(1):1-6.
[18] Mennel S, Schmidt JC, Meyer CH. Therapeutic strategies in choroidal neovascularizations secondary to angioidstreaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2003,136(30):580-582.
[19] Menchini U, Virgili G, Introini U, et al. Outcome of choroidal neovascularization in angioid streaks after photodynamic therapy[J]. Retina, 2004,24(5):763-771.
[20] Browning AC, Chung AK, Ghanchi F, et al. Verteporfin photodynamic therapy of choroidal neovascularization in angioid streaks: one-year results of a prospective case series[J]. Ophthalmology, 2005,112(7):1227-1231.
[21] Heimann H, Gelisken F, Wachtlin J, et al. Photodynamic therapy with verteporfin for choroidal neovascularisation associated with angioidstreaks[J]. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2005,243(11):1115-1123.
[22] Arias L, Pujol O, Rubio M, et al. Long-term results of photodynamic therapy for the treatment of choroidal neovascularization secondary to angioidstreaks[J]. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2006,244(6):753-757.
[23] Ladas ID, Georgalas I, Rouvas AA, et al. Photodynamic therapy with verteporfin of choroidal neovascularization in angioid streaks: conventional versus early retreatment[J]. Eur J Ophthalmol, 2005,15(1):69-73.
[24] EI Matri L, Kort F, Bouraoui R,et al. Intravitrealbevacizumab for the treatment of choroidal neovascularization secondary to angioid streaks: one year of follow-up[J].Acta Ophthalmol, 2011,89(7):641-646.
[25] Finger RP, CharbelIssa P, Hendig D, et al.Monthlyranibizumab for choroidal neovascularizationssecondary to angioid streaks in pseudoxanthoma elasticum:a one-year prospective study[J]. Am J Ophthalmol,2011,152(4):695-703.
[26] Mimoun G, Tilleul J, Leys A, et al. Intravitrealranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization in angioid streaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2010,150(5):692-700.
[27] González-Gómez A, Morillo MJ, González-Escobar AB,et al. Choroidal neovascularization secondary to pseudoxanthoma elasticom treated with ranibizumab:a report of 2 cases[J]. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol, 2012,87(5):153-156.
[28] Zebardast N, Adelman RA. Intravitrealranibizumabfortreatment of choroidal neovascularization secondary to angioid streaks in pseudoxanthoma elasticum: five-year follow-up[J]. Semin Ophthalmol, 2012,27(3-4):61-64.
[29] Lazaros K, Leonidas Z. Intravitrealranibizumab as primary treatment neovascular membrane associated with angioidstreaks[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2010,88(3):100-101.
[30] BattagliaParodi M, Iacono P, La Spina C, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab for nonsubfoveal choroidal neovascularization associated with angioid streaks[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2014,157(2):374-377.
[31] Gliem M, Finger RP, Fimmers R, et al. Treatment of choroidal neovascularization due to angioid streaks: a comprehensive review[J].Retina, 2013,33(7):1300-1314.
[32] Hamel C. Retinitis pigmentosa[J]. Orphanet J Rare Dis,2006,1:40.
[33] Adler R. Mechanisms of photoreceptor death in retinal degenerations. From the cell biology of the 1990s to the ophthalmology of the 21st century?[J]. Arch Ophthalmol,1996,114(1):79-83.
[34] Chong NH, Bird AC. Management of inherited outer retinal dystrophies: present and future[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 1999,83(1):120-122.
[35] Cheng JY, Adrian KH. Photodynamic therapy for choroidal neovascularization in stargardt disease and retinitis pigmentosa[J].Retin Cases Brief Rep,2009,3(4):388-390.
[36] Malik A, Sood S, Narang S. Successful treatment of choroidal neovascular membrane in retinitis pigmentosa with intravitreal bevacizumab[J].Int Ophthalmol, 2010,30(4):425-428.
[37] BattagliaParodi M, De Benedetto U, Knutsson KA, et al. Juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization associated with retinitis pigmentosa treated with intravitreal bevacizumab[J]. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther, 2012,28(2):202-204.
[38] Salom D, Diaz-Llopis M, García-Delpech S, et al. Intravitrealranibizumab in the treatment of cystoid macular edema associated with retinitis pigmentosa[J]. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther, 2010,26(5):531-532.
[39] Gass JDM. Stereoscopic atlas of macular diseases: diagnosis and treatment[M].4th ed. St Louis: Mosby, 1997:304-313.
[40] Querques G, Bocco MC, Soubrane G, et al. Intravitreal ranibizumab (Lucentis) for choroidal neovascularization associated with vitelliform macular dystrophy[J].Acta Ophthalmol,2008,86(6):694-695.
[41] Cennamo G, Cesarano I, Vecchio EC, et al.Functional and anatomic changes in bilateral choroidal neovascularization associated with vitelliform macular dystrophy after intravitreal bevacizumab[J].J Ocul Pharmacol Ther,2012,28(6):643-646.
[42] Chhablani J, Jalali S.Intravitreal bevacizumab for choroidal neovascularization secondary to Best vitelliform macular dystrophy in a 6-year-old child[J].Eur J Ophthalmol, 2012,22(4):677-679.
[43] Nozik RA, Dorsch W. A new chorioretinopathy associated with anterior uveitis[J]. Am J Ophthalmol,1973,76(5):758-762.
[44] Tatar O, Yoeruek E, Szurman P, et al. Effect of bevacizumab on inflammation and proliferation in human choroidal neovascularization[J]. Arch Ophthalmol, 2008,126(6):782-790.
[45] Lardenoye CW, Van der Lelij A, de Loos WS, et al. Peripheral multifocal chorioretinitis: a distinct clinical entity?[J]. Ophthalmology,1997,104(11):1820-1826.
[46] Brown J Jr, Folk JC, Reddy CV, et al. Visual prognosis of multifocal choroiditis, punctate inner choroidopathy, and the diffuse subretinal fibrosis syndrome[J]. Ophthalmology, 1996,103(7):1100-1105.
[47] Michel SS, Ekong A, Baltatzis S, et al. Multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis: immunomodulatorytherapy[J]. Ophthalmology, 2002,109(2):378-383.
[48] Nussenblatt RB, Coleman H, Jirawuthiworavong G, et al. The treatment of multifocal choroiditis associated choroidal neovascularization with sirolimus (rapamycin)[J]. Acta Ophthalmol Scand, 2007,85(2):230-231.
[49] Olsen TW, Capone A, Sternberg P, et al.Subfoveal choroidal neovascularization in punctate inner choroidopathy. Surgical management and pathologic findings[J]. Ophthalmology, 1996,103(12):2061-2069.
[50] Thomas MA, Dickinson JD, Melberg NS, et al. Visual results after surgical removal of subfoveal choroidal neovascularmembranes[J]. Ophthalmology, 1994,101(8):1384-1396.
[51] Parodi MB, Di Crecchio L, Lanzetta P, et al. Photodynamic therapy with verteporfin for subfoveal choroidal neovascularization associated with multifocal choroiditis[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2004,138(20): 263-269.
[52] Parodi MB, Iacono P, Spasse S, et al. Photodynamic therapy for juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization associated with multifocal choroiditis[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2006,141(1):23-26.
[53] Chan WM, Lai TY, Liu DT, et al. Intravitrealbevacizumab (Avastin) for choroidal neovascularization secondary to central serous chorioretinopathy, secondary to punctate inner choroidopathy, or of idiopathic origin[J]. Am J Ophthalmol,2007,143(6): 977-983.
[54] Fine HF, Zhitomirsky IB, Freund KB, et al.Bevacizumab (Avastin) and ranibizumab (Lucentis) for choroidal neovascularization in multifocal choroiditis[J]. Retina, 2009,29(1):8-12.
[55] Shimada H, Yuzawa M, Hirose T, et al. Pathological findings of multifocal choroiditis with panuveitis and punctate inner choroidopathy[J]. Jpn J Ophthalmol, 2008,52(4):282-288.
[56] Laatikainen L, Erkkila H. Serpiginous choroiditis[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 1974,58(9):777-783.
[57] Mansour AM, Jampol LK, Packo HK, et al. Macular serpiginouschoroiditis[J]. Retina, 1988, 8(2):125-129.
[58] Masi RJ, O’Connor R, Kimura SJ. Anterior uveitis in geographic or serpiginouschoroiditis[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 1978,86:228-231.
[59] Sahel JA, Weber M, Conlon MR, et al. Pathology of the uveal tract; in Albert DM, Jakobiec FA (eds): Principles and Practices of Ophthalmology: Clinical Practice. Philadelphia[J]. Saunders, 1994, 182:2145-2179.
[60] Wojno T, Meredith TA. Unusual findings in serpiginouschoroiditis[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 1982,94(5):650-653.
[61] Laatikainen L, Erkkil? H.Subretinal and disc neovascularization in serpiginouschoroiditis[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 1982,66(5):326-328.
[62] Jampol JK, Orth D, Daily MJ, et al. Subretinal neovascularization with geographic (serpiginous) choroiditis[J]. Am J Ophthalmol,1979,88(4):683-686.
[63] Gass JDM.Serpiginous Choroiditis. Stereoscopic atlas of macular diseases: diagnosis and treatment[M]. 4th ed. St Louis: Mosby, 1997:158-165.
[64] Christmas NH, Ok KT, Oh DM, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with serpiginouschoroiditis[J]. Retina, 2002,22(5):550-556.
[65] Song MH, Roh YJ.Intravitrealranibizumab for choroidal neovascularisation in serpiginouschoroiditis[J]. Eye (Lond), 2009, 23(9):1873-1875.
[66] Rouvas A, Petrou P, DouvaliM,et al. Intravitreal ranibizumab for the treatment of inflammatory choroidal neovascularization[J].Retina, 2011, 31(5):871-879.
[67] Williams DF, Mieler WF, Williams GA. Posterior segment manifestations of ocular trauma[J]. Retina,1990,10(Suppl 1):35-44.
[68] Wood CM, Richardson J. Chorioretinal neovascular membranes complicating contusional eye injuries with indirect choroidal ruptures[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 1990,74(2):93-96.
[69] Wyszynski RE, Grossniklaus HE, Frank KE. Indirect choroidal rupture secondary to blunt ocular trauma: a review of eight eyes[J].Retina, 1988,8(4):237-243.
[70] Hart JC, Natsikos VE, Raistrick ER, et al. Indirect choroidal tears at the posterior pole: a fluorescein angiographic and perimetric study[J]. Br J Ophthalmol,1980,64(1):59-67.
[71] Secrétan M, Sickenberg M, Zografos L, et al. Morphometric characteristics of traumatic choroidal ruptures associated with neovascularization[J].Retina,1998,18(1):62-66.
[72] Ament CS, Zacks DN, Lane AM, et al.Predictors of visual outcome and choroidal neovascular membrane formation after traumatic choroidal rupture[J].Arch Ophthalmol, 2006,124(7):957-966.
[73] Chanana B, Azad RV, Kumar N. Intravitreal bevacizumab for subfoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to traumatic choroidal rupture[J]. Eye(Lond), 2009,23(11):2125-2126.
[74] Yadav NK, Bharghav M, Vasudha K, et al. Choroidal neovascular membrane complicating traumatic choroidal rupture managed by intravitrealbevacizumab[J]. Eye,2009,23(9):1872-1873.
[75] Takahashi M, Kinoshita S, Saito W, et al.Choroidal neovascularization in a patient with blunt trauma-caused traumatic retinopathy without choroidal rupture[J].Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2011,249(1):137-140.
[76] Liang F, Puche N, Soubrane G, et al.Intravitreal ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization related to traumatic Bruch's membrane rupture[J]. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2009, 247(9):1285-1288.
[77] Browning DJ. Choroidal osteoma: observations from a community setting[J].Ophthalmology, 2003,110(7):1327-1334.
[78] Tsuchihashi T, Murayama K, Saito T, et al.Midperipheral mottling pigmentation with familial choroidal osteoma[J].Retina, 2005,25(1):63-68.
(本文編輯 諸靜英)
復旦大學附屬眼耳鼻喉科醫(yī)院眼科 上海 200031
張勇進(Email:yongjinzhang@yahoo.com)
10.14166/j.issn.1671-2420.2015.04.006
2015-06-08)