摘 要: 本文通過語料收集的方式,對J校藥學(xué)院2012級100名大一學(xué)生及美國北卡羅來納州立大學(xué)教堂山分校藥學(xué)院100名大一學(xué)生進行問卷調(diào)查,并從話語分析角度對其作文樣本進行語料對比分析,比較中美兩國學(xué)生在寫作中定語從句使用的差異,證實中國學(xué)生寫作中結(jié)構(gòu)松散、層次不清、前后連貫及邏輯性差這一推斷,以期引起教師重視,從而有針對性地開展下一步教學(xué),提高學(xué)生語言輸出的質(zhì)量。
關(guān)鍵詞: 大學(xué)生英語寫作 語料收集 話語分析 定語從句
從句是英語的基本語法結(jié)構(gòu)。Delahunty和Garvey(1994:207)指出:“有幾個原因能夠說明從句是基本的語法結(jié)構(gòu)。首先,我們只需要一個從句就能組成句子。其次,在正式交流中人們往往將一些短小的結(jié)構(gòu)組成從句用于交流及理解?!盵1]在英語學(xué)習(xí)中,從句的掌握和運用一直是第二語言習(xí)得過程中的難點。對英語從句的掌握情況在一定程度上反映了學(xué)習(xí)者的英語水平。
王滿良(2006)指出,由于受漢語思維習(xí)慣的影響,中國學(xué)生寫作時不善于使用且很少使用定語從句,因而造成文章連貫性、連續(xù)性差,層次不清,結(jié)構(gòu)松散。[2]近年來,多有學(xué)者注重錯誤分析的研究方法,錯誤分析是對錯誤語言進行識別、找尋原因、診斷的過程(James,2001)。[3]需要指出的是,學(xué)生習(xí)作中的定語從句缺乏現(xiàn)象不像習(xí)作中的錯誤那樣顯而易見,其隱蔽性致使它不容易被看到甚至被忽視,只有意識到它的存在,才能采取積極措施加以克服。我根據(jù)話語分析理論,通過語料收集的方式及語料對比分析的方法,揭示中美兩國學(xué)生在英語寫作中定語從句使用的差異,從而證實中國學(xué)生寫作中結(jié)構(gòu)松散、層次不清、前后連貫及邏輯性差這一推斷,以期引起教師重視,從而有針對性地開展下一步教學(xué),提高學(xué)生語言輸出的質(zhì)量。
話語分析是對使用中語言的研究,通過提供數(shù)據(jù)或通過提供跨語言的比較數(shù)據(jù),對語言學(xué)理論產(chǎn)生影響,注重研究引起分析家興趣的重要問題。Robert Lado指出:“Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him,and those elements that are different will be difficult.”漢語屬于漢藏語系,英語屬于印歐語系,兩種語言都有定語,其差異是英語中有定語從句和同位語從句,而漢語中沒有。英語定語從句在結(jié)構(gòu)上做定語,但在功能上可用于表時間、地點、方式、原因、轉(zhuǎn)折、讓步、目的等意義,即英語定語從句既可表示定語意義又可表示狀語意義。另外,在位置上,漢語定語一般只出現(xiàn)在被修飾詞之前(特殊用法除外,如:這是一本書,法語的。),英語定語放在被修飾詞之前、之后均可(如:a two year old girl或a girl of two)。且英語句尾是開放的,定語從句又可以帶有修飾自身內(nèi)容的定語從句,因此當(dāng)英語句子擴展為語段時,可以形成環(huán)扣式套接。如果寫作者或說話者想這樣做,句子就能在語感允許的范圍內(nèi)無限延伸。漢語句子是單平面(mono-level)結(jié)構(gòu),當(dāng)句子擴展為語段時,必須斷句另起(劉宓慶,1996:19-24)。[4]兩種語言的差異也成了以漢語為母語的學(xué)習(xí)者定語從句習(xí)得困難的重要原因。又由于英語定語從句本身結(jié)構(gòu)的復(fù)雜性,使得學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)和運用起來感覺難度較大,且出錯頻繁。另外中國學(xué)生寫作時往往采用漢語的思維方式,將自己腦中所想的漢語句子翻譯成英語,這使得他們的寫作變得棘手。
數(shù)據(jù)統(tǒng)計顯示,2012年6月份的全國大學(xué)英語四級考試中,J校某校區(qū)2010級非英語專業(yè)學(xué)生的寫作部分平均得分為91.11,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)低于滿分142分,由此可見,J校學(xué)生在英語寫作方面的語言輸出還不是很理想。因此我對本校區(qū)2012級非英語專業(yè)大一學(xué)生2012-2013學(xué)年第一學(xué)期期末考試作文中定語從句使用頻率所進行的統(tǒng)計發(fā)現(xiàn),100名受試者母語均為漢語,平均年齡為18.21歲,學(xué)習(xí)英語的平均年限為7.23年,他們在寫作中共使用定語從句56個,每篇作文平均使用定語從句0.56個。其中作文中使用定語從句數(shù)量最多的一位同學(xué),她共使用了四個定語從句,且使用中沒有出現(xiàn)任何語法錯誤;有65位同學(xué)通篇沒有使用定語從句,定語從句的使用率僅為35%。當(dāng)然這次統(tǒng)計是在自然狀態(tài)下進行的,題目中并沒有給出使用定語從句的明確要求,這在一定程度上反映了學(xué)生定語從句的使用意識普遍薄弱。100名美國學(xué)生平均年齡為17.96歲,英語是其母語,對他們所寫的文章所進行的統(tǒng)計顯示,文章共使用定語從句598個,且定語從句的使用率為100%,即每篇文章中都有定語從句,最多的一篇文章中包含10個定語從句。由此可見,中國學(xué)生英文習(xí)作中確實有定語從句缺乏現(xiàn)象。
下面是J校被試者中的一篇文章,題目是:My Views on Campus Security。
Recently,the issue of the campus security has been brought into the public focus.At present,we can know the problem of campus security is becoming terribler and terribler,and we can know this from our life and newspaper and so on.
The question of the campus security gives us some influence.Firstly,the school is a place for study,but a bad campus security can make us study in a bad place. Secondly,the security of school has influence to our health.The bad campus security can make our health in danger.Thirdly,it can make the parents hate the school and let the people in the school down.
So in my opinion,we should do some measures to deal with the campus security.On the one hand,the school should make measure to protect the students.On the other hand,the students should have a good sense to help and protect themselves.
此文章含154個單詞,在字?jǐn)?shù)上滿足了題目150詞左右的要求。文章結(jié)構(gòu)完整,合乎語法規(guī)范,邏輯嚴(yán)密,有少量語法錯誤,總體上可算是一篇優(yōu)秀作文。但通過仔細(xì)分析又發(fā)現(xiàn),文章中沒有使用一個定語從句。有朋友在美國North Carolina State University at Chapel Hill做訪問學(xué)者,她幫我收集了100篇北卡羅來納州立大學(xué)教堂山分校一年級學(xué)生的習(xí)作。我們接下來再分析一篇美國學(xué)生寫的文章,題目是Reasons For Becoming a Vegetarian。
Nowadays,when you go to the grocery stores or restaurants,probably you would see food items labeled vegetarian.So vegetarian means the type of people who choose the foods that do not contain meat.People of all ages are vegetarians and each one has his own reasons for refusing to eat meat.Some hold the opinion that eating meat is not good for you,others think it is quite wrong to kill animals and some other people believe meat is too expensive.
People who do not eat meat think it is unhealthy.Certain types of meat contain a high amount of fat and too much fat in the diet may cause some unhealthy problems like heart attacks,cancer,diabetes mellitus,etc.People may also get serious diseases or infections from eating meat that is not cooked long enough.Of course not everyone who enjoys eating meat will have these problems,but many people stop eating meat just because they do not want to take the chance.
People who do not eat meat hold the opinion that it is cruel to kill animals.Perhaps it is their religion that forbids it or they do not like the idea that an animal had to suffer and die just so they could have a meal.Many people who are vegetarians for this reason also avoid wearing clothes and shoes that are made of animal fur and leather.
And people who do not eat meat think it is too expensive.By not buying meat,these vegetarians have money left over to buy other kinds of food.Meat is high in protein,which is an important element of food that people need to stay alive.Vegetarians make sure they get the protein their bodies need by eating other,less expensive food like nuts,cheese and milk.
So when a person decides to stop eating meat,he must find alternative sources for the nutrients he needs to stay healthy.After a while,a vegetarian diet becomes a regular part of his daily life.
這篇文章包含10個定語從句,第一段包含兩個定語從句,第二段包含三個,第三段包含三個,第四段兩個。通過閱讀可以看出定語從句的使用使句子層次明了,表意準(zhǔn)確,主句表達(dá)主要信息,從句表達(dá)附屬信息。
再看如下幾段:
1.Our campus security is not very good.We will find a lot of problem in our school.It will bring some serous efforts. This is a important problem in socity.This is not good to us.
2.Recently,the issue of campus security has been brought into the public.We know campus security is a very important problem for students.There are a lot of schools that do not have a good security surrounding.
3.Nowadays,campus security has become a serious problem.More and more problems appear in the school.When this happens,more and more parents care of their children’s security.
我們可以看出,第一段全為簡單句,還出現(xiàn)了冠詞誤用、詞語拼寫錯誤、語篇思想不連貫、層次混亂的現(xiàn)象,讀者很難抓住主要信息,給人的感覺是寫作者是初學(xué)寫作,寫的內(nèi)容支離破碎,語言水平提高的空間很大。第二和第三段中,除了賓語從句、狀語從句外,也使用了定語從句,意思易懂,讀起來順暢連貫。
定語從句缺乏現(xiàn)象不僅僅是定語從句用得太少,更主要的是該使用定語從句的地方不使用或回避使用,致使句子讀起來別扭,一看就知道是出自中國學(xué)生之手。請看如下句子:
1.Nowadays,campus security has some problems.This disturbs us all the time.
我們可以將以上兩個句子合并,表意簡潔。合并后的句子為:Nowadays,campus security has some problems that/which disturb us all the time.
2.If you find a person in your dormitory and you think you are not familiar with,you should notice him.
如上所示,句中使用了并列句,為了使句子層次更清晰,意思表達(dá)更準(zhǔn)確,可將其修改為:If you find a person in your dormitory with which you are not familiar,you should notice him.
3.Today,there are some students think it is necessary for the school to pay more attention to the security problem.
該句是學(xué)生在寫作或口語中常犯的錯誤,也是要提醒學(xué)生注意的一種錯誤,there be結(jié)構(gòu)中又出現(xiàn)了其他動詞,可以修改為:
Today,there are some students who think it is necessary for the school to pay more attention to the security problem.或Some students think it is necessary for the school to pay more attention to the security problem.
4.Some 211bcbb81705ae6ff5c2669075b7d7dfschools take charge of the security problems.They should be strict on campus security.They should add some security guards to patrol in turn day and night.They should use electronic guard system hooked up to police station.Unfamiliar people should be checked or be kept outside of the school.
此組句子連貫性差,層次也不清楚,可調(diào)整為:Some schools that are strict on the security problems should take some measures to deal with the security problem,such as some security guards should be added to patrol in turn day and night,electronic guard system should be used to hook up to police station,and unfamiliar people should be checked or be kept outside of the school.
5.In contrast,poor campus security makes students don’t believe in campus security and feel fear now and then,they would anxious and lose their freedom.
當(dāng)長一些的句子出現(xiàn)的時候,往往句子前后就會存在不一致的情況,句子可改為:In contrast,poor campus security makes students don’t believe in campus security and feel fear now and then,which would make them feel anxious for losing their freedom.
如上例子均表明,由于受漢語的影響,寫作中學(xué)生往往不使用或回避使用定語從句,導(dǎo)致文章結(jié)構(gòu)松散、層次不清、前后連貫性及邏輯性差。同其他錯誤一樣,定語從句的缺乏嚴(yán)重制約著中國學(xué)生寫作輸出能力的提高,但由于其隱蔽性,往往被教師和學(xué)生忽略,因此我通過話語分析的方法揭示它存在的現(xiàn)實性和普遍性,在意識到這一現(xiàn)象存在的前提下我們可以采取積極措施加以克服。有研究表明,中國學(xué)生定語從句的使用是隨著語言知識的豐富而增多的。為解決寫作中定語從句的缺乏問題,教師要引導(dǎo)學(xué)生練習(xí)和使用定語從句,通過翻譯句子、句子組合、選擇填空等練習(xí)提高學(xué)生的使用意識;對學(xué)生習(xí)作中出現(xiàn)的問題及時、適時、適度講評和糾正,對于習(xí)作中出現(xiàn)的典型問題總結(jié)歸納,選取典型習(xí)作明確講解如何才能做到結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊、層次清晰、前后連貫、邏輯合理,在歸納錯誤的同時也要及時給予鼓勵,肯定優(yōu)點。另外由于課堂時間有限,教師要抓住關(guān)鍵點,切忌圍繞此問題做泛泛的練習(xí)和講解。
另外,回避也是學(xué)生在定語從句使用中采取的策略,這是學(xué)生在使用英語時為避免出錯而采取的一種交際策略。調(diào)查問卷顯示,不使用定語從句并不意味著學(xué)生一定是在回避使用,確實有部分學(xué)生刻意回避使用定語從句,調(diào)查顯示另有一部分學(xué)生由于沒有達(dá)到使用定語從句的語言水平而“低產(chǎn)出”定語從句。王初明、牛瑞英、鄭小湘(2000)嘗試了通過“寫長法”,即寫長作文來增強學(xué)生信心和提高學(xué)生的英語水平,循序漸進地讓學(xué)生多做一點,以漸進方式去取得成功,一學(xué)期之后效果凸顯,這為我們提供了借鑒。此外,語言學(xué)家Silva在兒童習(xí)得英語語篇的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),從屬連詞的使用隨著年齡的增長而明顯增多。那么我們的學(xué)生隨著使用的增多/HRIBw1vd4Sv6kZ6vDZMs1H3vmqTLw7fnO0D85gUTWE=,應(yīng)該可以改變習(xí)作中的定語從句缺乏現(xiàn)象,從而明顯提高語言輸出質(zhì)量。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]Delahunty,G P,Garvey,J J.Language,Grammar,and Communication:A course for Teachers of English[M].Columbus:McGraw-Hill,1994:207.
[2]王滿良,學(xué)生英文習(xí)作中的定語從句缺乏癥[M].西安:西北工業(yè)大學(xué)出版社,2006.
[3]James,Carl.Errors in Language Learning and Use:Exploring Error Analysis.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2001.
[4]劉宓慶.漢語句子擴展對比研究[J].現(xiàn)代外語,1992,55(1):10-15.
[5]王初明,牛瑞英,鄭小湘.以寫促學(xué)——一項英語寫作教學(xué)改革的試驗[J].外國語文,2000,32(3):207-212.