摘" 要" 注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙和發(fā)展性閱讀障礙是兩類常見的兒童神經(jīng)發(fā)育障礙, 二者共患率高達(dá)25%~48%。共患問題不僅使兒童自身面臨著嚴(yán)重的認(rèn)知、行為和心理?yè)p害, 還給家庭、學(xué)校和社會(huì)帶來了沉重的負(fù)擔(dān), 對(duì)共患兒童的干預(yù)是極為必要且重要的。以共患病理機(jī)制假說為基礎(chǔ), 可將既往共患兒童的干預(yù)研究劃分為以下兩大類:(1)基于表型假說的干預(yù)方案, 如藥物干預(yù)、閱讀干預(yù)以及二者聯(lián)合干預(yù), 相應(yīng)方案干預(yù)效果的遷移性和穩(wěn)定性均有待深入考究; (2)基于共同缺陷假說的干預(yù)方案, 如針對(duì)核心共同認(rèn)知缺陷之一的加工速度問題的干預(yù)已初顯成效, 但相關(guān)研究較少, 干預(yù)效果需更多研究進(jìn)一步系統(tǒng)性地考察。最后就共患兒童的干預(yù)方案現(xiàn)狀進(jìn)行了反思和展望。
關(guān)鍵詞" 注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙, 發(fā)展性閱讀障礙, 共患, 干預(yù), 認(rèn)知訓(xùn)練
分類號(hào)" R395
注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙(attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, ADHD)和發(fā)展性閱讀障礙(developmental dyslexia, DD)是常見的兒童神經(jīng)發(fā)育性障礙, 兩者有高達(dá)25%~48%的共患率(Semrud-Clikeman amp; Bledsoe, 2011)。ADHD的核心缺陷在于注意缺陷和反應(yīng)抑制能力缺陷, ADHD患者主要表現(xiàn)為注意力不集中、持續(xù)注意力差、多動(dòng)和沖動(dòng)(Barkley, 1997)。DD是指在排除了一般智力、學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)、生活環(huán)境、教育條件及器質(zhì)性病變等因素的影響之后, 個(gè)體仍在單詞識(shí)別、拼寫等技能上表現(xiàn)出明顯缺陷, 且其閱讀成績(jī)明顯低于同齡人平均水平(Lyon et al., 2003)。ADHD-DD共患兒童同時(shí)面臨著兩種障礙所導(dǎo)致的問題, 即注意問題(Mayes amp; Calhoun, 2007)和閱讀技能問題(Willcutt, Pennington, et al., 2005), 對(duì)共患兒童的認(rèn)知、行為和心理社會(huì)性發(fā)展等方面造成嚴(yán)重影響。例如, ADHD-DD共患兒童表現(xiàn)出明顯的認(rèn)知功能缺陷, 其在工作記憶、認(rèn)知靈活性、抑制控制等執(zhí)行功能成分上存在問題(Willcutt et al., 2001), 并表現(xiàn)出了緩慢的命名和加工速度(Rucklidge amp; Tannock, 2002; Willcutt, Doyle, et al., 2005)。ADHD-DD共患兒童還存在情緒和品行問題(鐘鑫琪 等, 2019), 且共患兒童比只患其中一種障礙的兒童更容易出現(xiàn)學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)差和學(xué)習(xí)能力低下的情況(Willcutt amp; Pennington, 2000)。值得注意的是, 共患問題不僅給兒童自身造成了許多消極影響, 同時(shí)給兒童的父母帶來較大的精神和經(jīng)濟(jì)壓力, 也給社會(huì)帶來了沉重的負(fù)擔(dān)(Sexton et al., 2012)。因此, 對(duì)共患兒童的干預(yù)應(yīng)引起高度重視。其中, 設(shè)計(jì)切實(shí)有效的干預(yù)方案更是解決問題的關(guān)鍵所在。本文將基于ADHD- DD共患的病理機(jī)制假說, 綜述既往干預(yù)研究, 分析干預(yù)效果和局限, 并提出未來的研究方向。
1" ADHD-DD共患的病理機(jī)制假說
近幾十年來, 研究者們持續(xù)探討ADHD-DD共患的病理機(jī)制, 目前主要包括3種理論假說, 即表型假說(Pennington et al., 1993)、認(rèn)知亞型假說(Rucklidge amp; Tannock, 2002)和共同缺陷假說(Willcutt, Pennington, et al., 2005)。表型假說認(rèn)為, 共患是由一種原發(fā)障礙引發(fā)了另一種障礙或該障礙的癥狀, 如ADHD癥狀妨礙了兒童學(xué)習(xí)閱讀技能時(shí)的注意力, 進(jìn)而影響其閱讀表現(xiàn); 或DD的低閱讀能力引起兒童的沮喪挫敗心理, 進(jìn)而導(dǎo)致其注意力不集中以及其它相關(guān)行為問題(Pennington et al., 1993)。Pennington等人(1993)發(fā)現(xiàn)共患組和單純DD組表現(xiàn)出相似程度的語(yǔ)音加工缺陷, 而在執(zhí)行功能的綜合評(píng)分上表現(xiàn)正常; 相反地, 單純ADHD組表現(xiàn)出正常的語(yǔ)音加工能力和異常的執(zhí)行功能。此結(jié)果說明ADHD癥狀是繼發(fā)于DD的, 符合表型假說的預(yù)期。認(rèn)知亞型假說將共患視為一種獨(dú)立的第三種障礙, 具有不同于單純ADHD和單純DD的獨(dú)特認(rèn)知缺陷模式, 如在某些認(rèn)知技能上存在特定問題(Rucklidge amp; Tannock, 2002)。一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 在快速命名、一般聽覺工作記憶和抑制控制等認(rèn)知技能上, 共患組比單純ADHD、DD組更差(Poon amp; Ho, 2014; Rucklidge amp; Tannock, 2002; Wang amp; Chung, 2018), 支持了認(rèn)知亞型假說。共同缺陷假說認(rèn)為共患是由兩種障礙共同的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素導(dǎo)致的, 共享了某些神經(jīng)生物學(xué)、遺傳學(xué)或認(rèn)知上的缺陷, 即共患者與單純ADHD和單純DD患者具有相同的認(rèn)知缺陷(Willcutt, Pennington, et al., 2005)。以往研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 單純ADHD、單純DD和共患兒童存在相似程度的加工速度缺陷(Shanahan et al., 2006), 后續(xù)研究聯(lián)合回歸分析和結(jié)構(gòu)方程模型發(fā)現(xiàn)加工速度問題可能是ADHD-DD共患認(rèn)知缺陷機(jī)制的基礎(chǔ)(Willcutt et al., 2010)。此外, Kibby等人(2021)發(fā)現(xiàn)單純ADHD、單純DD和共患兒童, 相較于典型發(fā)展控制組兒童, 表現(xiàn)出相似程度的言語(yǔ)工作記憶缺陷。以上這些研究結(jié)果均支持了共同缺陷假說。
表型假說(Pennington et al., 1993)是第一個(gè)被提出的共患病理機(jī)制假說, 早期針對(duì)共患的干預(yù)研究大多基于此理論展開, 研究者們?cè)噲D通過對(duì)ADHD和DD中某一障礙的核心缺陷進(jìn)行干預(yù)來改善另一種障礙的癥狀表現(xiàn), 即對(duì)共患兒童直接使用ADHD或(和)DD的干預(yù)方案。近些年研究者對(duì)ADHD、DD和共患的內(nèi)在認(rèn)知功能進(jìn)行了大量研究, 發(fā)現(xiàn)了ADHD和DD兩類障礙共同的一些認(rèn)知缺陷, 近期有研究者開始基于此設(shè)計(jì)干預(yù)方案, 預(yù)期通過干預(yù)ADHD和DD共同的認(rèn)知缺陷因子來同時(shí)緩解兩種障礙的癥狀表現(xiàn)。而認(rèn)知亞型假說強(qiáng)調(diào)共患的特殊性, 目前還未見相關(guān)的干預(yù)實(shí)證研究。因此, 下文將主要基于表型假說和共同缺陷假說梳理現(xiàn)有ADHD-DD共患的干預(yù)研究。
2" 對(duì)共患兒童直接使用ADHD或(和)DD的干預(yù)方案
2.1" 共患兒童的藥物干預(yù)
在ADHD的臨床治療中, 哌甲酯是常用的興奮劑藥物, 通過結(jié)合多巴胺轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體和去甲腎上腺素轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體, 阻斷并抑制其再攝取而增加突觸間隙的多巴胺及去甲腎上腺素水平, 增強(qiáng)特定腦區(qū)的多巴胺及去甲腎上腺素活性, 從而提高注意水平, 減緩多動(dòng)沖動(dòng)(楊斌讓, 2019)。哌甲酯對(duì)共患兒童的注意力不集中、多動(dòng)、沖動(dòng)等ADHD核心行為癥狀的緩解是明顯的(Froehlich et al., 2018; Storeb? et al., 2015), 但對(duì)其閱讀技能改善效果卻不穩(wěn)定。Bental和Tirosh (2008)對(duì)25名7~12歲的共患組男孩進(jìn)行雙盲的安慰劑對(duì)照交叉試驗(yàn)。結(jié)果表明, 相較于安慰劑, 哌甲酯改善了共患兒童的快速命名技能和單詞/假詞閱讀準(zhǔn)確率; 在后續(xù)追蹤測(cè)試中, 哌甲酯對(duì)閱讀的干預(yù)效果并沒有得到顯著保持, 值得注意的是, 在該研究中, 后測(cè)與藥物干預(yù)之間的時(shí)間間隔僅為1小時(shí)。因此, 哌甲酯帶來的閱讀相關(guān)技能的改善可能只是一種即時(shí)的、依賴于藥物狀態(tài)的短期效果。Tannock等人(2000)也報(bào)告了共患兒童哌甲酯組比安慰劑組在顏色快速命名上有急性提升效果, 但在以言語(yǔ)刺激(如數(shù)字、字母)作為材料的快速命名任務(wù)成績(jī)上的提升效果不顯著, 說明哌甲酯對(duì)共患兒童閱讀相關(guān)技能的短期效果仍存在爭(zhēng)議。此外, 有研究還同時(shí)比較了共患組與單純患病組的藥物干預(yù)效果, Keulers等人(2007)采用非盲法臨床試驗(yàn)探究了哌甲酯對(duì)ADHD-DD共患兒童、單純ADHD兒童的影響。結(jié)果顯示, 共患組在正確閱讀單詞數(shù)量上的提升比單純ADHD組更大, 體現(xiàn)了藥物干預(yù)對(duì)共患兒童詞匯閱讀準(zhǔn)確性的顯著貢獻(xiàn)。但在此期間共患兒童同時(shí)進(jìn)行了閱讀技能訓(xùn)練, 因此, 該研究所發(fā)現(xiàn)的閱讀水平提升可能混淆了閱讀技能訓(xùn)練的促進(jìn)效應(yīng)。同時(shí), 該研究沒有進(jìn)行盲法控制, 缺乏共患空白對(duì)照組, 因此共患組在閱讀技能上的改善無法排除自然增長(zhǎng)、練習(xí)效應(yīng)等因素的可能影響。由此可見, 目前哌甲酯對(duì)ADHD-DD共患兒童閱讀技能的提升效果及效果的保持性仍有待進(jìn)一步明確。
托莫西汀是常用的ADHD非興奮劑藥物, 可以選擇性抑制去甲腎上腺素轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體, 阻止其再攝取, 增加神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)去甲腎上腺素及前額葉皮質(zhì)的多巴胺, 進(jìn)而可顯著緩解ADHD癥狀(Froehlich et al., 2018; 楊斌讓, 2019)。然而, 該藥物對(duì)閱讀技能的改善效果仍存在爭(zhēng)議。一些研究結(jié)果并未顯示出托莫西汀藥物干預(yù)對(duì)共患者閱讀技能的改善(de Jong et al., 2009; Wietecha et al., 2013)。Wietecha等人(2013)對(duì)124名共患兒童進(jìn)行為期16周的托莫西汀隨機(jī)雙盲、安慰劑對(duì)照臨床試驗(yàn), 結(jié)果顯示, 實(shí)驗(yàn)組共患兒童的工作記憶測(cè)試得分明顯提高, 且其ADHD癥狀評(píng)分有所下降, 但其閱讀技能成績(jī)并未表現(xiàn)出明顯變化。類似地, de Jong等人(2009)也沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)托莫西汀藥物干預(yù)對(duì)共患兒童詞匯判斷能力的促進(jìn)性影響。然而, 另一些研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)了托莫西汀對(duì)共患者閱讀技能的提升作用(Shaywitz et al., 2014; Shaywitz et al., 2017)。Shaywitz等人(2014)對(duì)36名共患組兒童進(jìn)行了為期16周的托莫西汀干預(yù)。研究結(jié)果顯示, 此藥物干預(yù)緩解了共患兒童的ADHD癥狀, 并使其在考夫曼教育評(píng)分(Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, K-ABC)中閱讀模塊(主要包括閱讀解碼和閱讀理解)上的得分顯著提高。同一課題組的Shaywitz等人(2017)進(jìn)一步擴(kuò)大樣本量至124名共患兒童, 采用了16周的隨機(jī)雙盲、安慰劑對(duì)照設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)現(xiàn), 相較于對(duì)照組, 實(shí)驗(yàn)組共患兒童的ADHD癥狀得到顯著改善, 其語(yǔ)音加工技能也明顯提升。然而這兩項(xiàng)研究中的ADHD量表評(píng)分前后測(cè)差值與閱讀能力的干預(yù)效果之間并無顯著相關(guān), 據(jù)此研究者認(rèn)為, 閱讀技能的提升不能用ADHD癥狀的緩解來解釋(Shaywitz et al., 2017)。目前, 托莫西汀對(duì)于ADHD-DD共患兒童閱讀技能的治療效果仍不一致, 這可能與不同研究所用的閱讀測(cè)試不同有關(guān), 因此, 該藥物干預(yù)對(duì)閱讀的影響效果還有待進(jìn)一步深入探究。
由上述可知, 哌甲酯和托莫西汀均能通過直接或間接作用調(diào)整突觸間隙多巴胺和去甲腎上腺素的平衡, 起到對(duì)共患兒童ADHD癥狀的治療作用(李焱 等, 2022), 且改善效果顯著和穩(wěn)定; 但兩種藥物對(duì)共患兒童閱讀技能的干預(yù)效果尚未達(dá)成一致結(jié)論。藥物干預(yù)可能對(duì)不同閱讀技能的影響存在差異, 對(duì)共患者的顏色快速命名、單詞閱讀準(zhǔn)確性等部分閱讀技能有短暫的提升效果, 但藥物對(duì)閱讀技能影響的長(zhǎng)期效果及其作用機(jī)制仍尚未明確。
2.2" 共患兒童的閱讀技能干預(yù)
以往研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 閱讀技能干預(yù)除可提高兒童的閱讀能力以外, 還可以有效提升其注意水平(Rabiner et al., 2010; Roberts et al., 2015)。例如, 一年級(jí)DD兒童在接受了語(yǔ)音意識(shí)、發(fā)聲、閱讀流暢性、詞匯量和閱讀理解等閱讀技能的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助閱讀指導(dǎo)后, 在教師評(píng)定的注意力不集中癥狀上有明顯減少(Rabiner et al., 2010)。另一項(xiàng)為期3年的DD閱讀技能干預(yù)研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)了類似的結(jié)果 (Roberts et al., 2015)。但以上研究中的被試均為DD兒童, 其是否共患ADHD并未明確。
后續(xù)研究進(jìn)一步在ADHD-DD共患兒童中探查閱讀干預(yù)的效果。岳鑫鑫等人(2019)使用程序化拼音游戲?qū)?1名共患兒童進(jìn)行了為期8周的拼音訓(xùn)練, 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)訓(xùn)練組在音位刪除、拼音切詞等方面與基線水平相比有顯著提升, 但空白對(duì)照組前后無明顯差異, 表明拼音訓(xùn)練有效改善了共患兒童的語(yǔ)音能力, 但該研究未評(píng)估訓(xùn)練前后的注意力癥狀改善情況。Rabiner等人(2004)比較了以語(yǔ)音為基礎(chǔ)的閱讀輔導(dǎo)對(duì)有、無注意問題的DD兒童閱讀技能提升效果。結(jié)果表明, 在無注意問題的DD兒童中, 閱讀干預(yù)對(duì)其單詞識(shí)別和語(yǔ)音意識(shí)技能有顯著提升效果; 但對(duì)有注意問題的DD兒童, 干預(yù)效果不顯著。綜上可見, 目前, 考察閱讀干預(yù)對(duì)共患兒童影響的研究較少, 且已有研究結(jié)果顯示傳統(tǒng)的閱讀輔導(dǎo)對(duì)共患兒童作用效果有限, 對(duì)其特定閱讀技能可能存在積極影響, 對(duì)其ADHD癥狀的改善情況仍有待明確。
2.3" 共患兒童的聯(lián)合干預(yù)
基于以上的文獻(xiàn)梳理可知, 只針對(duì)某一障礙的單模式干預(yù)對(duì)共患兒童的效果并不理想。有研究將分別針對(duì)ADHD和DD的干預(yù)方案結(jié)合起來對(duì)共患兒童進(jìn)行聯(lián)合干預(yù), 并考察相應(yīng)的干預(yù)效果。根據(jù)聯(lián)合干預(yù)中兩類方案的開展形式, 可分為同時(shí)性聯(lián)合干預(yù)和序列性聯(lián)合干預(yù)。在同時(shí)性聯(lián)合干預(yù)的研究中, Tamm等人(2017)對(duì)216名8~11歲的共患兒童進(jìn)行了為期16周的干預(yù)研究。共患兒童被隨機(jī)分為3組:閱讀干預(yù)組、ADHD干預(yù)組和聯(lián)合干預(yù)組。閱讀干預(yù)的內(nèi)容包括語(yǔ)音、單詞識(shí)別、拼寫、閱讀流暢性和理解, 每次45分鐘, 每周4次; ADHD干預(yù)包括家長(zhǎng)行為管理培訓(xùn)和藥物治療; 聯(lián)合干預(yù)組是同時(shí)接受閱讀干預(yù)與ADHD干預(yù)。研究者分別以斯諾佩頓第四版(Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Rating Scale Ⅳ, SNAP-IV)評(píng)定量表(包括家長(zhǎng)版和教師版)和韋克斯勒個(gè)人成就測(cè)驗(yàn)(Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, WIAT)評(píng)估共患兒童的ADHD癥狀和單詞閱讀、假詞語(yǔ)音解碼等閱讀能力。結(jié)果表明, ADHD干預(yù)改善了共患兒童的ADHD癥狀; 閱讀干預(yù)提升了共患兒童的閱讀技能; 聯(lián)合干預(yù)表現(xiàn)出了與另兩種干預(yù)方案相似程度的影響效果, 但并無增量效應(yīng), 即聯(lián)合干預(yù)組與ADHD干預(yù)組在ADHD癥狀上的緩解程度無顯著差異, 與閱讀干預(yù)組在語(yǔ)音解碼等閱讀技能上的改善程度無顯著差異。該團(tuán)隊(duì)后續(xù)進(jìn)一步發(fā)現(xiàn)聯(lián)合干預(yù)方案對(duì)共患兒童閱讀流暢性也表現(xiàn)出與上述模式相似的影響(Denton et al., 2020)。在序列性聯(lián)合干預(yù)的研究中, Tannock等人(2018)先將共患兒童分為藥物干預(yù)組和安慰劑組, 干預(yù)4個(gè)月之后, 再對(duì)兩組共患兒童進(jìn)行閱讀干預(yù)。結(jié)果顯示, 藥物改善了共患兒童的ADHD行為癥狀, 但對(duì)單詞閱讀技能無提升作用; 在后續(xù)的閱讀干預(yù)后, 兩組共患組兒童表現(xiàn)出相似程度的閱讀能力的進(jìn)步, 即序列聯(lián)合干預(yù)方案也未表現(xiàn)出增量效果。
綜合以往基于表型假說的干預(yù)研究可知, 此類干預(yù)方案對(duì)某一障礙的直接干預(yù)效果較好, 但是對(duì)另一種障礙的干預(yù)效果的顯著性和穩(wěn)定性都有待進(jìn)一步明確。此外, 聯(lián)合干預(yù)較單模式干預(yù)而言對(duì)兩種障礙的緩解效果更加全面, 但并未發(fā)現(xiàn)增量效果, 即相較于單一障礙的干預(yù), 聯(lián)合另一種障礙的干預(yù)并未有更好的收效。在聯(lián)合干預(yù)方案中, 這種缺乏干預(yù)效果的交互性影響對(duì)表型假說提出了一定的挑戰(zhàn)。
3" 針對(duì)ADHD和DD共同認(rèn)知缺陷干預(yù)共患兒童
3.1" ADHD和DD的共同認(rèn)知缺陷
關(guān)于ADHD和DD的共同認(rèn)知缺陷仍處于探索之中, 目前研究者主要認(rèn)為語(yǔ)音意識(shí)、言語(yǔ)工作記憶、視覺注意、加工速度等認(rèn)知技能困難可能是兩類障礙的共同缺陷因子。以往研究發(fā)現(xiàn)DD和ADHD均表現(xiàn)出了語(yǔ)音加工問題(Gon?alves- Guedim amp; Crenitte, 2015; Gooch et al., 2011; Ramus et al., 2003)、言語(yǔ)工作記憶任務(wù)成績(jī)低(Kibby et al., 2021; Willcutt, Pennington, et al., 2005)、視覺注意(Caldani et al., 2020; Gomes et al., 2012)、快速命名(特別是對(duì)物體、圖形等非言語(yǔ)刺激的快速命名)速度慢(Pecini et al., 2019; Whipple amp; Nelson, 2016)、知覺加工速度低(Low et al., 2019; Stefanac et al., 2019; Willcutt et al., 2010)等共享認(rèn)知缺陷。同時(shí), 有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)共患者在以上認(rèn)知加工方面表現(xiàn)出了與單純ADHD或單純DD類似的顯著缺陷(Gooch et al., 2011; Kibby et al., 2021; Shanahan et al., 2006; Whipple amp; Nelson, 2016; Willcutt et al., 2010)。特別是在加工速度方面, 已有研究對(duì)其在兩種障礙中的作用上進(jìn)行了不同方面的探討。有研究者把加工速度納入結(jié)構(gòu)方程模型后發(fā)現(xiàn), 注意與閱讀的關(guān)聯(lián)消失, 因此, 他們認(rèn)為緩慢的加工速度可能是ADHD和DD重要的共同底層缺陷(McGrath et al., 2011; Whipple amp; Nelson, 2016; Willcutt et al., 2010)。
3.2" 針對(duì)ADHD和DD共同的認(rèn)知缺陷進(jìn)行的共患干預(yù)研究
目前基于ADHD和DD的共同認(rèn)知缺陷的干預(yù)研究?jī)H有一篇(Horowitz-Kraus, 2015), 且主要是針對(duì)兩種障礙共享的工作記憶和加工速度缺陷設(shè)定的干預(yù)方案。該研究采用CogniFit計(jì)算機(jī)化認(rèn)知程序?qū)σ唤M單純ADHD兒童(n = 14)和一組ADHD-DD共患兒童(n = 14)同時(shí)進(jìn)行訓(xùn)練, 訓(xùn)練內(nèi)容具體包括加工速度、快速命名, 以及執(zhí)行功能(如工作記憶、抑制、靈活性、空間能力、分配性注意等認(rèn)知技能), 訓(xùn)練為期8周, 每周3次, 每次15~20分鐘。該研究結(jié)果顯示, 相較于單純ADHD組, 共患組兒童在加工速度和閱讀能力上的訓(xùn)練效果均更好, 且閱讀能力的提升與加工速度的改善顯著相關(guān)。然而, 本研究沒有設(shè)置控制組, 也未考察訓(xùn)練對(duì)ADHD癥狀的影響。因此, 針對(duì)ADHD和DD共同認(rèn)知缺陷進(jìn)行的共患干預(yù)效果到底如何, 仍有待于進(jìn)一步研究加以明確。
雖然當(dāng)前著眼于共同缺陷假說的共患干預(yù)研究有限, 但從其方案自身特點(diǎn)以及對(duì)比于基于表型假說的干預(yù)方案而言, 此類干預(yù)方案值得深入研究, 原因如下:首先, 在干預(yù)效果上, 基于共同缺陷的干預(yù), 相較于單純患病者, 可更顯著地改善共患者的認(rèn)知技能, 且訓(xùn)練效果具有明顯的遷移性(Horowitz-Kraus, 2015); 相比之下, 基于表型假說的干預(yù)方案大多是單純障礙干預(yù)方案的直接沿用或簡(jiǎn)單組合, 對(duì)某一障礙的直接干預(yù)效果較好, 但是對(duì)另一種障礙的遷移性干預(yù)效果不顯著或不穩(wěn)定。其次, 在干預(yù)形式上, 基于共同認(rèn)知缺陷假說的干預(yù)方案主要是針對(duì)底層基礎(chǔ)認(rèn)知技能的訓(xùn)練, 相應(yīng)的干預(yù)可結(jié)合計(jì)算機(jī)程序編制, 形式靈活多樣; 而基于表型假說的干預(yù)方案主要涉及藥物治療或閱讀訓(xùn)練, 其中, 藥物治療會(huì)帶來一定的副作用, 在兒童、父母甚至臨床醫(yī)生上的接受度并不高(Meppelink et al., 2016), 而閱讀技能干預(yù)會(huì)使用到與文字加工相關(guān)的技能, 這會(huì)給共患兒童帶來壓力, 容易導(dǎo)致其中途退出(Dehaene et al., 2010)。
4" 總結(jié)及展望
由上述可知, 目前針對(duì)共患的干預(yù)主要是基于表型假說進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)的, 相關(guān)干預(yù)研究雖取得了顯著的直接效果, 但在效果保持性和遷移性上均不理想?;诠餐毕菁僬f的干預(yù)研究仍很欠缺, 但已有研究結(jié)果提示此類共患干預(yù)方案的可行性, 并給予未來研究一定的啟示。后續(xù)研究可以進(jìn)一步從以下幾方面開展:
第一,全面探查注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙和發(fā)展性閱讀障礙的共同缺陷, 以豐富相關(guān)領(lǐng)域的干預(yù)實(shí)證研究。Pennington (2006)提出, 復(fù)雜行為障礙的病因是多因素的, 其中一些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素被另一種疾病共享, 從而導(dǎo)致共病。除了加工速度緩慢, ADHD和DD的核心癥狀還包括視覺注意缺陷(Barkley, 1997; Gomes et al., 2012)、語(yǔ)音加工問題(Gon?alves-Guedim amp; Crenitte, 2015; Gooch et al., 2011; Ramus et al., 2003)、言語(yǔ)工作記憶受損(Kibby et al., 2021), 這些受損的認(rèn)知技能也可能是兩種障礙的共同缺陷。以往針對(duì)以上認(rèn)知技能分別對(duì)兩種障礙兒童進(jìn)行的訓(xùn)練大多已取得了良好的干預(yù)效果(Kollins et al., 2020; Tamm et al., 2013;Valdois et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2019)。那么, 針對(duì)共患者進(jìn)行相應(yīng)干預(yù)的效果又如何呢?未來研究可以從這些可能的共同認(rèn)知缺陷角度探查共患的內(nèi)在機(jī)理以及展開相關(guān)的認(rèn)知訓(xùn)練。
第二,采用更加多樣的形式來設(shè)計(jì)基于表型假說的干預(yù)方案, 以更充分地驗(yàn)證表型缺陷假說及更全面地考察相應(yīng)干預(yù)方案的影響效果。當(dāng)前基于表型假說的干預(yù)方案, 僅是對(duì)單純ADHD和單純DD干預(yù)方案的沿用。然而, 當(dāng)前單純ADHD的干預(yù)研究不僅局限于藥物干預(yù), 非藥物干預(yù)如執(zhí)行功能訓(xùn)練(Benzing amp; Schmidt, 2019; Dovis et al., 2015; Klingberg et al., 2005)、注意訓(xùn)練(Kollins et al., 2020; Tamm et al., 2013)等認(rèn)知訓(xùn)練也獲得了顯著的干預(yù)效果。美國(guó)食品藥品管理局(Food and Drug Administratio, FDA)于2020年正式批準(zhǔn)將一款數(shù)字游戲化認(rèn)知訓(xùn)練程序作為治療ADHD的“數(shù)字處方” (Kollins et al., 2020)。同樣, 單純DD的干預(yù)研究除閱讀技能訓(xùn)練外, 還包括許多效果明顯的非語(yǔ)言層面的認(rèn)知加工技能訓(xùn)練, 如大細(xì)胞?背側(cè)通路功能訓(xùn)練(Ebrahimi et al., 2019; Qian amp; Bi, 2015)、視覺注意廣度訓(xùn)練(Valdois et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2019)等。但目前針對(duì)ADHD-DD共患的干預(yù)研究較少涉及非藥物、非語(yǔ)言層面的訓(xùn)練。未來研究可以更多嘗試設(shè)計(jì)針對(duì)共患不同缺陷癥狀的認(rèn)知訓(xùn)練程序, 采用多種方法全面提升其各方面能力。
第三, 結(jié)合腦成像技術(shù)探討共患的內(nèi)在缺陷機(jī)理及干預(yù)起作用的機(jī)制。目前, 只有少數(shù)結(jié)構(gòu)神經(jīng)影像學(xué)研究直接考察了共患的情況(Goradia et al., 2016; Kibby et al., 2009), 多數(shù)研究是分別考察單純ADHD和單純DD的腦機(jī)制, 通過進(jìn)一步比較明確兩種障礙的重疊腦機(jī)制和特異性腦機(jī)制, 以進(jìn)一步探查共患的可能神經(jīng)機(jī)制。近期有研究者對(duì)單純ADHD和DD的大腦灰質(zhì)進(jìn)行元分析, 發(fā)現(xiàn)兩種障礙相關(guān)的異常腦結(jié)構(gòu)的重疊區(qū)域是在右側(cè)尾狀核(McGrath amp; Stoodley, 2019)。另外, 近年來也有一些研究開始直接探究共患的腦結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn), 并發(fā)現(xiàn), ADHD共患DD在顳中回皮層厚度(Langer et al., 2019)、左側(cè)額中回體積上(Kibby et al., 2020)與單純ADHD和DD具有顯著差異, 這些研究為共患的神經(jīng)機(jī)制提供更直接的證據(jù), 并為共患是不同于單純ADHD、DD的獨(dú)立亞型提供了可能的支持。未來可以結(jié)合具體任務(wù), 進(jìn)一步從腦功能、腦網(wǎng)絡(luò)等角度更加動(dòng)態(tài)和系統(tǒng)地了解共患者的內(nèi)在神經(jīng)機(jī)制。與此同時(shí), 基于其相關(guān)的神經(jīng)機(jī)制深入了解各類干預(yù)對(duì)ADHD-DD共患群體的影響作用機(jī)理。
第四, 系統(tǒng)地從直接效果、遷移效果、保持效果等角度去評(píng)估共患干預(yù)方案。ADHD-DD共患兒童面臨注意、閱讀等多重問題, 干預(yù)方案的遷移性以及效果的保持性均十分重要, 但上述中提到的短暫遷移效果(Bental amp; Tirosh, 2008)并不是干預(yù)方案所要達(dá)到的理想水平。因此, 后續(xù)研究需要進(jìn)一步基于共患缺陷機(jī)制來優(yōu)化干預(yù)方案, 以實(shí)現(xiàn)訓(xùn)練效果和遷移效果的長(zhǎng)效保持。
第五, 將父母干預(yù)、教師培訓(xùn)等融入到共患兒童的干預(yù)體系中, 形成兒童?父母?學(xué)校共同體, 共同促進(jìn)共患兒童成長(zhǎng)。美國(guó)心理學(xué)家布朗芬布倫納提出的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)理論強(qiáng)調(diào)了環(huán)境對(duì)個(gè)體發(fā)展的重要作用, 家庭和學(xué)校是兒童重要的微系統(tǒng)(劉杰, 孟會(huì)敏, 2009)。ADHD、DD以及共患兒童的家長(zhǎng)面臨較大的養(yǎng)育壓力和情緒問題(胡俊 等, 2021; Miranda et al., 2015), 這會(huì)對(duì)兒童的成長(zhǎng)環(huán)境造成不良影響。同樣, 教師對(duì)共患兒童的態(tài)度、教育方式也會(huì)影響其成長(zhǎng)。因此對(duì)于共患兒童的干預(yù)也應(yīng)關(guān)注其所處的家庭和學(xué)校等環(huán)境因素, 從多方面著手開展干預(yù)。
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Abstract: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and developmental dyslexia (DD) are two common neurodevelopmental disorders in children, and the prevalence of the comorbidity between these two disorders varies from 25% to 48%. This comorbidity not only exposes children to cognitive, behavioral, and psychological impairments but also brings a heavy burden to their families, schools, and society. Hence, intervention for children with comorbidity between ADHD and DD is extremely important and necessary. Based on the hypothesis regarding the pathological mechanism of this comorbidity, previous intervention studies can be divided into the following two categories: 1) Intervention programs based on the phenotype hypothesis, such as pharmacological intervention, reading intervention, and combination of the two interventions. The transfer effect and retention effect of these interventions need to be further studied in depth; 2) Intervention programs based on the common deficit hypothesis, such as intervention focusing on processing speed, one of the core common cognitive deficits between ADHD and DD. Preliminary benefits have been found in this intervention; however, only few related studies can be found. More studies are required to systematically explore relevant intervention effects. Finally, the present review reflected on some major issues and implications of the current interventions for children with comorbidity between ADHD and DD.
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental dyslexia, comorbidity, intervention, cognitive training