應(yīng)對氣候變化的公共空間設(shè)計

著：（泰）約薩邦·布恩松 （泰）瑪麗莎·帕利巴特 （泰）金塔帕·諾伊龐 譯：劉睿 校：邊思敏

氣候變化是當(dāng)下人類社會最大的問題之一。政府間氣候變化專門委員會（IPCC）編制的第五次評估報告中表明，1950—1959年氣候系統(tǒng)經(jīng)歷了一系列在過去幾十年內(nèi)從未發(fā)生過的變化。大氣和海洋變暖，大量冰雪消融，海平面上升，溫室氣體濃度持續(xù)增加[1]。

與世界經(jīng)濟(jì)論壇一樣，氣候變化問題以及國際社會未能解決這一問題的情況被列為高度優(yōu)先事項(xiàng)。氣候變化是當(dāng)前最需要解決的全球性問題之一，因?yàn)槿驓鉁孛可仙?℃將導(dǎo)致洪災(zāi)增加170%，特別是在東南亞等極易受災(zāi)的地區(qū)，到2100年，全球平均海平面可能上升1.1 m，對這些地區(qū)將造成極大影響。目前，自然災(zāi)害在世界各地頻繁發(fā)生，而且有愈演愈烈的趨勢，而泰國本身也經(jīng)常面臨自然災(zāi)害。曼谷被列為受氣候變化影響的高風(fēng)險地區(qū)之一，也被評為近期海岸洪災(zāi)和地面沉降的高風(fēng)險地區(qū)之一[2]。此外，泰國還可能受緩慢發(fā)生的氣候變化影響，如海平面上升、氣溫升高等，或者是難以提前預(yù)測的極端氣候影響，如洪水、干旱、風(fēng)暴等[2]。這種不確定性同時影響著經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會領(lǐng)域，包括人民的生活，使得國家不得不為解決這些問題而付出代價。因此，應(yīng)做好準(zhǔn)備，以全面、系統(tǒng)和可持續(xù)的方式應(yīng)對潛在影響。但與此同時，由于曼谷正在擴(kuò)張發(fā)展成為一個擁有1 000萬人口的大都市，過去用于緩解洪水的果園、稻田和水系正被建筑和道路所取代，導(dǎo)致城市中的綠地和水系正在持續(xù)減少。這座城市到處充斥著硬質(zhì)景觀，堵塞了水道，給城市地區(qū)帶來了災(zāi)難性的洪水。這是應(yīng)對氣候變化如此困難的另一個重要原因。

1 解決方案：從灰色到綠色

城市化帶來的綠地缺失引發(fā)了眾多環(huán)境問題：快速擴(kuò)張的混凝土叢林、被取代的流域面積均導(dǎo)致熱島效應(yīng)的增加。因此出現(xiàn)了洪水泛濫、食物短缺、煙塵增多等問題，人們?nèi)狈】祪?yōu)質(zhì)的，可以通過親近自然來恢復(fù)身心健康的場所。此外，城市動物棲息地的喪失對城市生態(tài)系統(tǒng)平衡產(chǎn)生了負(fù)面影響。隨著城市發(fā)展所引起的環(huán)境問題日益嚴(yán)重，加之全球動蕩的形勢，這些問題越來越突出。作為風(fēng)景園林設(shè)計師，應(yīng)該運(yùn)用風(fēng)景園林專業(yè)知識作為解決問題的途徑，通過應(yīng)用傳統(tǒng)智慧和基于自然的解決方案，使城市能夠調(diào)整并準(zhǔn)備好應(yīng)對不斷出現(xiàn)的挑戰(zhàn)，尤其是氣候變化。

在著手調(diào)整以適應(yīng)不斷變化的氣候條件時，要考慮以下關(guān)鍵因素。1）態(tài)度：必須接受氣候變化的發(fā)生，因?yàn)樽匀粸?zāi)害和氣候變化是不可避免的。2）基于自然的解決方案：將自然資源作為城市發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)是非常重要的，它們不僅能有效應(yīng)對挑戰(zhàn)，還能提升可持續(xù)性。3）利益相關(guān)者參與：為實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)，需要激發(fā)所有涉及城市發(fā)展的利益相關(guān)者的全程參與。4）賦權(quán)：在城市發(fā)展中實(shí)施基于自然的方法，需要與人們進(jìn)行有效的溝通和交流，這不僅能夠提供有價值的見解和信息，還能提高人們對共同面臨的挑戰(zhàn)的認(rèn)知。5）增強(qiáng)知識：必須尋求知識和創(chuàng)新，以改進(jìn)城市發(fā)展方法，并分享這些知識，以增強(qiáng)社會中每個個體的能力。6）數(shù)據(jù)和技術(shù)：數(shù)據(jù)和技術(shù)作為準(zhǔn)確描述和反映真實(shí)情況的工具，可確保行動的正確性。7）創(chuàng)造機(jī)會：將風(fēng)險轉(zhuǎn)化為機(jī)會，意味著將自然災(zāi)害和天氣變化以前所未有的方式轉(zhuǎn)化為恢復(fù)和改善城市的機(jī)會，這將改善生活質(zhì)量、增強(qiáng)可持續(xù)性，并在未來創(chuàng)造經(jīng)濟(jì)機(jī)會和就業(yè)崗位。8）機(jī)制：不能僅僅依靠傳統(tǒng)的政府機(jī)制。世界正趨向于增強(qiáng)協(xié)作的平臺發(fā)展，鑒于問題的復(fù)雜性，需要整合資源，在政策層面跨部門協(xié)作，包括私營部門、學(xué)術(shù)界和民間團(tuán)體。9）綠色：綠地不應(yīng)與城市基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施分離；相反，綠地應(yīng)該融入城市基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施之中。在確保城市做好應(yīng)對災(zāi)害和未來挑戰(zhàn)的準(zhǔn)備方面，綠地發(fā)揮著至關(guān)重要的作用。綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施應(yīng)包括社會基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，并促進(jìn)糧食系統(tǒng)的生物多樣性。

綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施的建設(shè)與城市中的其他基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施（如道路和其他公共設(shè)施）同樣重要，需要在城市發(fā)展的同時進(jìn)行認(rèn)真地投入。綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施（GI）的定義涉及利用自然資源，尤其是將綠地納入城市基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，為社區(qū)帶來自然的益處。它可以被視為一種能將自然的優(yōu)勢帶給公眾的、以區(qū)域?yàn)榛A(chǔ)的設(shè)施體系。可以按職責(zé)將綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施分為4類。1）社會基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，為不同性別和年齡的人創(chuàng)造互動空間，讓其參與集體活動和創(chuàng)造性活動，包括活動區(qū)、公共公園和游樂場。2）健康基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，包括有助于城市中個人的身體、精神、智力健康的空間，從而促進(jìn)大眾整體健康，包括療愈花園、健康公園和運(yùn)動場。3）食品基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，即建立安全的食品生產(chǎn)區(qū)，使城市居民能夠食用營養(yǎng)豐富、質(zhì)量上乘的食品，以促進(jìn)健康，包括促進(jìn)社區(qū)參與和刺激當(dāng)?shù)亟?jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的城市農(nóng)場。4）環(huán)境基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，包括緩和城市環(huán)境問題影響的區(qū)域，其作用包括雨水吸納、灰塵過濾、降溫和二氧化碳吸收。這些區(qū)域也是城市野生動物棲息地。

基于上述考量，可以開發(fā)一個集多種功能和效用于一體的綠色空間，以確保在城市地區(qū)面臨眾多挑戰(zhàn)的情況下進(jìn)行經(jīng)濟(jì)有效的投資。重要的是，可以將不同的綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施組成部分與不同的城市元素相協(xié)調(diào)，包括綠色緩沖區(qū)、綠色斑塊、綠色紐帶、綠色建筑和口袋公園（圖1）。

綠色緩沖區(qū)是5種類型中最大的綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施。它是一個綜合性的水管理和城市管理系統(tǒng)，作為保護(hù)屏障，緩解城市洪水帶來的影響。此外，它還顯著增加了綠量，使城市更加宜居和可持續(xù)。綠色緩沖區(qū)包括城市中作為水源涵養(yǎng)區(qū)或農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)區(qū)的靜態(tài)區(qū)域。除了作為農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)區(qū)，還有助于增強(qiáng)城市的緊湊性和可擴(kuò)展性。2050超級洪泛平原——大城府項(xiàng)目①就是一個廣泛應(yīng)用此類綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施的實(shí)例（圖2）。該項(xiàng)目是對2011年泰國毀滅性洪災(zāi)的回應(yīng)，促使泰國民眾反思城市發(fā)展的不足，并思考未來應(yīng)該如何與水共存。大城府位于湄南河下游，是受洪水影響最嚴(yán)重的8個省之一。自上而下的問題解決思路往往會導(dǎo)致建造大規(guī)模建筑物，對環(huán)境系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生重大影響。另一種替代選擇是“超級洪泛平原”的概念，以最小干預(yù)為原則，鼓勵社區(qū)在現(xiàn)有農(nóng)業(yè)區(qū)內(nèi)利用自己的水管理網(wǎng)絡(luò)。這種方式為大城府帶來了社會、經(jīng)濟(jì)和環(huán)境效益。Shma設(shè)計團(tuán)隊(duì)研究了延伸到湄南河的洪泛區(qū)以及所發(fā)生的危機(jī)，以便在未來50年內(nèi)，為大城府水域和湄南河下游流域周邊經(jīng)濟(jì)之間建立新的平衡。

圖2 2050超級洪泛平原——大城府項(xiàng)目2050 Ultra Flood Plain — Ayutthaya project

綠色斑塊是城市內(nèi)部的大型綠地，作為城市級公共公園，可容納大量人群和活動。它既是水源涵養(yǎng)區(qū)，也是城市中的自然區(qū)域，可促進(jìn)生物多樣性的提升，如動植物群落及耕地。此外，綠色斑塊允許將輪作作物用作動物飼料，有助于糧食安全。位于曼谷郊區(qū)的Bang Bon生態(tài)公園項(xiàng)目是一個具有說明性的例子（圖3）。該公園的設(shè)計目標(biāo)是保護(hù)現(xiàn)有的環(huán)境系統(tǒng)，恢復(fù)原始生態(tài)系統(tǒng)，并保護(hù)植物物種。此外，它還為該地區(qū)營造了一種愉悅的氛圍，為游客提供了一個安靜的環(huán)境，并培養(yǎng)了人們對與自然共存重要性的認(rèn)識。在雨季，Bang Bon生態(tài)公園最大的優(yōu)勢在于其高效的水管理能力，因?yàn)樗谩昂镒幽橆a”②等本土化的蓄水方法來有效儲存洪水和雨水。

圖3 Bang Bon生態(tài)公園項(xiàng)目The Bang Bon Ecological Park project

綠色紐帶是一條穿過許多城市區(qū)域的廊道，是公共公園、自行車道和步行道的組合，用城市生態(tài)系統(tǒng)連接交通和娛樂活動。它作為一個廣泛的網(wǎng)絡(luò)，通過綠地將不同區(qū)域相互連接起來，促進(jìn)了體育活動。綠色紐帶可以沿著運(yùn)河、鐵路或在高速公路的下方建設(shè)。通過營造宜人的氛圍，綠色紐帶使人們可以欣賞周圍的景觀，將充斥著混凝土的空間轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榉泵臉淞趾突▓@。此外，沿紐帶相互連接的植物網(wǎng)格還能過濾沿線的灰塵顆粒，降低空氣污染。曼谷綠色紐帶項(xiàng)目（圖4）體現(xiàn)了“振興城市基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，重新鏈接城市生活”的理念，旨在重連城市生活、恢復(fù)城市自然。曼谷面臨著無規(guī)劃城市擴(kuò)張的挑戰(zhàn)，其交通網(wǎng)絡(luò)以汽車為主，在高速公路下方和運(yùn)河沿線有許多未充分利用的區(qū)域。最終，城市及其轄區(qū)缺乏連通性，造成了社會和環(huán)境問題。因此，曼谷綠色紐帶項(xiàng)目提出了一個潛在的振興框架，全長54 km（包括28 km的主環(huán)線和26 km的交叉連接線），促進(jìn)了公共空間、社區(qū)和整個城市的連通性。該項(xiàng)目建成后，將在環(huán)境可持續(xù)性、社會福利、經(jīng)濟(jì)投資發(fā)展領(lǐng)域產(chǎn)生效益，最終引領(lǐng)曼谷走向可持續(xù)的未來。

圖4 曼谷綠色通道項(xiàng)目The Bangkok Green Link project

綠色建筑能帶來諸多益處，可以應(yīng)用于密集區(qū)域或受限空間，如城市中心或高層建筑群中。為現(xiàn)有建筑增加綠色有助于降低建筑內(nèi)外的溫度，節(jié)約能源，最終減少污染物排放。與建筑整合的綠地，包括屋頂和各種開放區(qū)域，不僅能為使用者提供益處，還能對城市環(huán)境產(chǎn)生積極影響。建筑中的綠地可以作為休閑公共空間、運(yùn)動鍛煉空間、屋頂農(nóng)場和垂直花園使用。例如新加坡的豐樹商業(yè)城二期項(xiàng)目[3]③（圖5），設(shè)計的核心理念是保護(hù)該場地的原始自然特征，創(chuàng)建一個城市森林，不僅能支持更大的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)，而且能在場地內(nèi)形成有助于工作和運(yùn)維的相對較小的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。使用本地植物讓維護(hù)更加容易，也更契合當(dāng)?shù)氐臍夂驐l件。此外，利用雨水和自然濕地營造的自然水循環(huán)系統(tǒng)也有益于長期的環(huán)境健康（圖6）。共享工作空間、室外劇場和運(yùn)動場地等各種活動空間與城市的自然環(huán)境完美融合。另一個有趣的例子是健康小鎮(zhèn)[4]④（圖7），這是泰國第一個老年社區(qū)開發(fā)項(xiàng)目。通過設(shè)計超過40%的綠地率，確保了該區(qū)域有指定的聚會點(diǎn)，為社交互動創(chuàng)造機(jī)會。社區(qū)內(nèi)設(shè)有菜園、戶外用餐區(qū)、慢跑道和游泳池，同時優(yōu)先考慮了安全問題，通過扶手、充足的照明和防滑表面措施將事故風(fēng)險降至最低。康復(fù)花園包括健身器材和按摩小路，在生機(jī)勃勃、芳香四溢的樹林中創(chuàng)造了一個有韌性的環(huán)境，包括生物濕地和生物池塘的智能水管理系統(tǒng)，用于管理洪水和在旱季蓄水，同時為城市野生動物創(chuàng)造棲息地?？傊?，健康小鎮(zhèn)項(xiàng)目為人類和自然提供了一個寧靜、優(yōu)質(zhì)的生活環(huán)境。

圖5 豐樹商業(yè)城二期項(xiàng)目Mapletree Business City II project

口袋公園是一種與社區(qū)無縫融合的小尺度綠地，步行即可到達(dá)，一般面積不超過2英畝（約8 394 m2）。作為社區(qū)級公園，重點(diǎn)開展?jié)M足該區(qū)域居民需求的活動。筆者在下文以“we!park平臺”為例進(jìn)行探討。

此外，關(guān)于空氣污染這一全球性重大問題，我們想強(qiáng)調(diào)的另一個示范項(xiàng)目是“安全地帶”⑤（圖8）。這是一個以空氣過濾和提高空氣污染意識為目的而設(shè)計的臨時性構(gòu)筑物。該項(xiàng)目創(chuàng)建了一個保護(hù)人們免受空氣污染，過濾空氣并提供舒適環(huán)境的空間（室內(nèi)結(jié)合了空氣過濾機(jī)械和天然空氣過濾植物）。當(dāng)污染空氣被通風(fēng)系統(tǒng)吸入時，由直立的喬木和灌木組成的第一道防線開始利用葉片中釋放的水蒸氣捕獲灰塵顆粒，地被植物也在同時吸收污染物和排放物；隨后，空氣通過除塵濾網(wǎng)和冷卻板，溫度逐漸降低，為室內(nèi)的游客營造一個令人愉快和清新的氛圍。此外，根據(jù)計算，室內(nèi)超過15 m2的樹木每年可產(chǎn)生約92.6 kg的氧氣。

圖8 “安全地帶”項(xiàng)目The Safezone Shelter project

2 we!park平臺：如何建立共創(chuàng)綠色空間的機(jī)制？

泰國首都曼谷經(jīng)歷了城市高速發(fā)展的過程。由于城市發(fā)展主要集中在不斷擴(kuò)大的住宅區(qū)和經(jīng)濟(jì)區(qū)，各種開發(fā)導(dǎo)致綠色公共空間的缺失，還出現(xiàn)了空置或碎片化的空間。這些問題引發(fā)了人們對安全問題的擔(dān)憂，也破壞了這些社區(qū)的整體美感。

利用空置或被忽視的空間發(fā)展公園可能是應(yīng)對這些城市挑戰(zhàn)的一個解決方案。發(fā)展公園或綠色公共空間不一定需要大面積的區(qū)域，可以更加靈活地利用各種廢棄或閑置空間。這些空間可以是政府或私人所有，但應(yīng)易于進(jìn)入并保證安全。在改造過程中，當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)應(yīng)積極參與和協(xié)作，并滿足社區(qū)成員的需求和偏好?？梢愿鶕?jù)社區(qū)或用戶需求納入的活動場地包括健康公園、運(yùn)動場、游樂場、城市菜園或森林公園。種植林蔭植物不僅有助于氧氣生成，還能保持生物多樣性，并便于維護(hù)。

目前，曼谷的綠地在人均數(shù)量和可達(dá)性方面都低于世界衛(wèi)生組織（WHO）制定的全球公認(rèn)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（人均綠地面積最低9 m2），而曼谷的人均綠地面積僅為6.9 m2。

此外，在評估步行距離的綠地平均可達(dá)性時，WHO建議綠地應(yīng)分布在300～500 m或大約10～15 min可達(dá)的范圍內(nèi)。相比之下，曼谷居民平均需要60 min的時間或4.5 km 的距離才能到達(dá)綠地。令人擔(dān)憂的是，曼谷只有13%的居民能夠在400 m半徑范圍內(nèi)進(jìn)入綠地。此外，樹蔭覆蓋區(qū)域僅占綠地總面積的17%。

因此，曼谷市制定了通過“綠色曼谷2030”項(xiàng)目來增加綠地的目標(biāo)。這一舉措旨在將人均綠地從目前的6.9 m2增加到10 m2，并改善綠地可達(dá)性至步行15 min。實(shí)現(xiàn)這些目標(biāo)后，到2030年，400 m半徑范圍內(nèi)可達(dá)綠地的人口比例將從13%增加到50%，樹蔭覆蓋率將從現(xiàn)有的17%擴(kuò)大到30%[5]（圖9）。

圖9 曼谷綠化情況及綠色公共空間策略Bangkok green situation and green public space strategy

圖10 we!park行動計劃we!park strategy

截至2022年，曼谷的綠地面積約為41 327 286.489 m2，其 中 將 近 一 半 的 面 積（18 602 682.9 m2）公眾無法進(jìn)入。在傳統(tǒng)的政府管理下，如果不加以額外干預(yù)，增加綠色空間目標(biāo)是不可能實(shí)現(xiàn)的。因此，創(chuàng)建we!park平臺，以促進(jìn)綠地的可達(dá)性建設(shè)。

we!park是一個平臺，源于將空置或未充分利用的空間開發(fā)成高質(zhì)量、可持續(xù)的綠色公共場所的概念。它側(cè)重于選擇小尺度的城市空間，并在整個設(shè)計過程中讓包括政府機(jī)構(gòu)、私營部門、民間團(tuán)體、專業(yè)部門和教育機(jī)構(gòu)在內(nèi)的各種利益相關(guān)者參與合作（圖9、10）。

針對曼谷面臨的挑戰(zhàn)，we!park有機(jī)會將未使用和廢棄的空間開發(fā)成小型綠色公共區(qū)域，即口袋公園（面積約80～8 000 m2）。其重點(diǎn)不僅僅是擴(kuò)大綠地的數(shù)量，而是增加公共空間的使用機(jī)會。這些口袋公園明確要求保證公眾的可達(dá)性，并采用參與式設(shè)計過程，讓所有部門的利益相關(guān)者都參與進(jìn)來。這種方法旨在創(chuàng)造高質(zhì)量和可持續(xù)的綠色公共空間。

we!park開發(fā)的公園可以很容易地融入城市的不同地區(qū)，在大約400～1 000 m的舒適步行距離內(nèi)促進(jìn)公共空間的平等使用。如前所述，we!park平臺包括了參與綠色公共空間開發(fā)和城市發(fā)展的所有相關(guān)部門，通過它們的共同協(xié)作，這些潛在區(qū)域得以開發(fā)。該平臺利用了大量資源和資本來支持和提高公共空間開發(fā)過程的高效性和可持續(xù)性。

地區(qū)級政府機(jī)構(gòu)是曼谷公園發(fā)展中發(fā)揮重要作用的一個關(guān)鍵機(jī)制。we!park已經(jīng)實(shí)施了“公園診所和公園指導(dǎo)”項(xiàng)目，成為協(xié)調(diào)和聯(lián)系利益相關(guān)者（包括政府機(jī)構(gòu)、公眾、私營部門和該地區(qū)其他相關(guān)方）的中心樞紐。這項(xiàng)舉措的重點(diǎn)是設(shè)計適合每個人的包容性空間，確保對設(shè)計區(qū)域的持續(xù)維護(hù)和管理，并根據(jù)每個獨(dú)立區(qū)域的具體需求提供知識支持。最終目標(biāo)是建造更多面向社區(qū)、滿足不同社區(qū)需求的小型公園。

“公園診所和公園指導(dǎo)”項(xiàng)目是一項(xiàng)能力培養(yǎng)倡議，旨在通過參與式學(xué)習(xí)，提升政府官員在公園開發(fā)方面的專業(yè)知識。它涉及6個地區(qū)組的政府官員：北曼谷組、北吞武里組、東曼谷組、中曼谷組、南吞武里組和南曼谷組。培訓(xùn)使這些官員成為專家，并積極參與設(shè)計過程，確保公園滿足人民的期望和需求。每個地區(qū)在其管轄范圍內(nèi)選擇一個場地，由包括政府機(jī)構(gòu)、私營部門、大學(xué)、專業(yè)部門和公眾在內(nèi)的5個部門共同設(shè)計和開發(fā)，以在各自地區(qū)創(chuàng)建最具響應(yīng)性和可持續(xù)性的公園。

每個地區(qū)小組的“公園診所和公園指導(dǎo)”項(xiàng)目將持續(xù)3 d，包括為期2.5 d的培訓(xùn)課程和0.5 d在示范性公園的實(shí)地考察，如NHA Khlong Chan社區(qū)的Lankila Phat 1運(yùn)動場。在此之后，每個地區(qū)將開始研究當(dāng)?shù)氐沫h(huán)境、特點(diǎn)以及各自面臨的具體挑戰(zhàn)，這些認(rèn)知將引導(dǎo)他們找到合適的設(shè)計解決方案。

在整個過程中，項(xiàng)目還尋求與專業(yè)建筑學(xué)術(shù)機(jī)構(gòu)（例如提供建筑教育的大學(xué)）的合作。泰國建筑師協(xié)會等專業(yè)組織為綠地開發(fā)提供咨詢服務(wù)。最后，通過對設(shè)計工作的進(jìn)展情況進(jìn)行監(jiān)督，包括討論、交流和修訂，確保各區(qū)當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)的積極參與。合作過程結(jié)束后，設(shè)計方案將參加“15分鐘公園”競賽，隨后作為各區(qū)正在進(jìn)行的“15分鐘公園”項(xiàng)目進(jìn)一步開發(fā)和建設(shè)。

這個項(xiàng)目將為初步開發(fā)提供一個綜合性框架，共包括50個構(gòu)想。其中有25個“彈出式公園”作為待建的實(shí)驗(yàn)原型。隨后，將開展暑期學(xué)校項(xiàng)目，研究6個地區(qū)中的新地區(qū)級空間潛力。此外，6個地區(qū)的政府組織還將提供實(shí)習(xí)機(jī)會，最終在鄰里層面建立試點(diǎn)模式，由公共和私營部門合作，至少涉及13個地區(qū)。之后，we!park團(tuán)隊(duì)將著手在全市范圍內(nèi)建造“15分鐘公園”。這項(xiàng)嘗試需要曼谷都市管理局的預(yù)算計劃支持，以及私營部門的捐款和籌款工作，以確保曼谷居民能夠在全市范圍內(nèi)在15 min半徑范圍內(nèi)使用綠地。

we!park的綠色公共空間布局策略側(cè)重于增加小型綠色公共空間的數(shù)量，并將其均衡地融入城市，以確保每個人都能方便、廣泛地使用。目前，we!park團(tuán)隊(duì)正在努力將這些空間改造為可持續(xù)發(fā)展的綠色公共區(qū)域。這一舉措從5個潛在區(qū)域的試點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目開始（圖11）。1）華南蓬寺口袋公園：這是一個社區(qū)級的公共公園，是由捐贈的土地發(fā)展成口袋公園的原型，由朱拉隆功大學(xué)建筑系和多位專業(yè)設(shè)計師協(xié)同設(shè)計，并成功實(shí)施。該公園的建設(shè)得到了曼谷都市管理局的財政捐助，并通過指定平臺Taejai.com獲得眾籌資金支持。2）Choduek社區(qū)口袋公園：這是一個位于Talad Noi市 場 附 近Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem運(yùn)河沿岸的游樂場及娛樂區(qū)。該公園的設(shè)計在學(xué)生和專業(yè)設(shè)計師的共同參與下完成，其建造得到了私營部門的資金支持。3）Ekkamai口袋公園：這是一座位于繁華的Saen Saep運(yùn)河沿岸，由運(yùn)河上建造橋梁形成的剩余空間開發(fā)而成的公共公園。其設(shè)計方案來自設(shè)計競賽的獲獎方案，并與社區(qū)合作開發(fā)。目前，在曼谷都市管理局的支持下，項(xiàng)目正處于建設(shè)預(yù)算編制階段。4）Saeng Thip運(yùn)動場：該項(xiàng)目位于高速公路下方，曾是一個被忽視的空間。然而，通過當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)和私營部門的合作，已被改造成一個運(yùn)動場。此外，它還是不斷增長的空間網(wǎng)絡(luò)系統(tǒng)的一部分，目前正在向第二階段擴(kuò)展。5）Klong San彈出式公園：這個創(chuàng)意空間位于湄南河畔，已被臨時授予私人土地使用權(quán)，為期12年。在籌款和參與式進(jìn)程中，該區(qū)域從Khlong San社區(qū)的垃圾場轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)閷W(xué)習(xí)、創(chuàng)造和文化活動的空間。它正在演變成一個新的社區(qū)和鄰里節(jié)點(diǎn)，成為一個休閑區(qū)和人們向往的目的地，承載了運(yùn)動、放松、草藥種植和垃圾分類等功能。

圖11 we!park的5個試點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目The 5 pilot projects of we!park

經(jīng)過幾年的努力，we!park 通過不斷嘗試獲得了寶貴的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，其中3個基本工具的使用非常重要。1）數(shù)據(jù)庫：we!park團(tuán)隊(duì)開發(fā)了wepark.co網(wǎng)站，為感興趣的個人獲取有關(guān)we!park的項(xiàng)目信息和數(shù)據(jù)（包括運(yùn)營細(xì)節(jié)和組織信息）提供平臺。該數(shù)據(jù)庫收集并整合了實(shí)體進(jìn)度報告、綠色公共空間趨勢數(shù)據(jù)以及每個地區(qū)開發(fā)的具體細(xì)節(jié)。此外，它還將用戶連接到名為“綠色查找器”的應(yīng)用程序，該應(yīng)用程序是溝通、統(tǒng)計和了解綠色公共空間現(xiàn)狀的渠道。2）知識平臺：即在線溝通平臺，旨在更新we!park的工作進(jìn)程和分享與綠色公共空間開發(fā)相關(guān)的各種知識。該平臺允許感興趣的個人訪問信息、搜索數(shù)據(jù)，并隨時獲得最新消息，其目的是通過提供知識和鼓勵每個人的積極參與來促進(jìn)綠色公共空間的發(fā)展。3）指南：這是一本創(chuàng)建小型綠地（口袋公園）的指南，其中總結(jié)了we!park近兩年工作的經(jīng)驗(yàn)教訓(xùn)，包括工作指南、原則、案例研究和練習(xí)，可以為社區(qū)小型綠地的開發(fā)提供參照。

3 結(jié)論

為應(yīng)對不斷變化的氣候條件，開發(fā)綠色公共空間可以作為加強(qiáng)備災(zāi)的一種解決方案。這些空間的開發(fā)對于提高人們的生活質(zhì)量有多維度的益處。首先，它通過在整個城市分布綠地、促進(jìn)生物多樣性和提供陰涼，對環(huán)境產(chǎn)生積極影響。其次，它還有助于緩解城市熱島效應(yīng)，降低城市溫度。此外，從社會角度來看，綠地作為社區(qū)的休閑和交流場所，加強(qiáng)了社會聯(lián)系，構(gòu)筑了社區(qū)韌性。

不僅如此，它還在微觀和宏觀層面促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展，有助于催生貿(mào)易空間、促進(jìn)消費(fèi)并增加土地價值。最重要的是，它會對身心健康產(chǎn)生積極影響。因此，讓城市適應(yīng)不斷變化的世界應(yīng)與創(chuàng)造綠地同步進(jìn)行，并認(rèn)識到廢棄區(qū)域是發(fā)展的機(jī)會。

只有當(dāng)意識到城市面臨的問題同時也是發(fā)展機(jī)遇時，才能建設(shè)一個可持續(xù)發(fā)展的幸福社會。這個過程中必須納入?yún)f(xié)作、知識、資金和政策，刺激和創(chuàng)造商業(yè)機(jī)會。促進(jìn)健康、保護(hù)環(huán)境，并準(zhǔn)備好應(yīng)對持續(xù)的氣候變化，只有這樣，人類社會與地球環(huán)境才能實(shí)現(xiàn)可持續(xù)及韌性發(fā)展。

注釋：

① 2050超級洪泛平原大城府項(xiàng)目，由Shma設(shè)計，位于泰國大城府，2011年竣工，詳見：https://shmadesigns.com/work/2050-ultra-flood-plain。該項(xiàng)目將占全省面積70%的現(xiàn)有灌溉網(wǎng)絡(luò)改造為蓄水網(wǎng)絡(luò)，這意味著不需要額外開墾土地。由于城市的四周被農(nóng)業(yè)區(qū)包圍，農(nóng)業(yè)區(qū)及其灌溉網(wǎng)絡(luò)可以作為緩沖區(qū)，保護(hù)城市地區(qū)免受外部洪水的侵襲。

② “猴子臉頰”是泰國模式的滯洪區(qū)，源于泰國已故國王普密蓬·阿杜德（Bhumibol Adulyadej）在防洪方面的倡議，其機(jī)制類似于猴子將食物塞進(jìn)臉頰，然后再逐漸吞下。

③ 豐樹商業(yè)城項(xiàng)目二期，由Shma設(shè)計，位于新加坡，2016年竣工，用地面積35 000 m2，詳見https://shmadesigns.com/work/mapletree-business-city-ii.

④ 健康小鎮(zhèn)項(xiàng)目，由Shma設(shè)計，位于泰國曼谷，2018年竣工，用地面積22.8萬m2，詳見https://shmadesigns.com/work/jin-wellbeing-county.

⑤ 安全地帶項(xiàng)目，由Shma設(shè)計，位于泰國曼谷，2020年竣工，用地面積150 m2，詳見https://shmadesigns.com/work/safezone-shelter.

圖片來源：

圖1～3、6?Shma景觀設(shè)計與研究事務(wù)所有限公司；圖4?Shma景觀設(shè)計與研究事務(wù)所有限公司和 Shma SoEn有限公司；圖5?Wison Tungthhunya；圖7?Panoramic工作室；圖8?Napon Jaturapuchapornpong；圖9?we!park和mor and farmer公司；圖10～11?we!park。

（編輯/項(xiàng)曦）

著者簡介：

（泰）約薩邦·布恩松/男/Shma景觀設(shè)計與研究事務(wù)所有限公司主任、景觀設(shè)計師/非營利組織河流之友（FOR）聯(lián)合創(chuàng)始人/we!park團(tuán)隊(duì)的聯(lián)合創(chuàng)始人/研究方向?yàn)榫坝^與建筑設(shè)計

（泰）瑪麗莎·帕利巴特/女/《城市破壞者》（City Cracker）線上編輯/研究方向?yàn)槲幕?、藝術(shù)及生活品質(zhì)

（泰）金塔帕·諾伊龐/前考古學(xué)家/Shma景觀設(shè)計與研究事務(wù)所有限公司企業(yè)公關(guān)專員/研究方向?yàn)闅v史、文化、城市管理和公共空間規(guī)劃

譯者簡介：

劉睿/女/碩士/綠化林業(yè)高級工程師/前上海植物園科研人員/低維護(hù)種植踐行者/研究方向?yàn)槿A東區(qū)系適生植物應(yīng)用與設(shè)計

校者簡介：邊思敏/女/博士/北京林業(yè)大學(xué)園林學(xué)院講師、碩士生導(dǎo)師/研究方向?yàn)轱L(fēng)景園林規(guī)劃與設(shè)計，風(fēng)景園林理論

BOONSOM Y，PALEEBAT M，NOIPANG J.Living with Climate Change Through Public Space[J].Landscape Architecture, 2023, 30(10): 83-95.DOI:10.12409/j.fjyl.202309110410.

Living with Climate Change Through Public Space

Authors:(THA) YOSSAPON Boonsom, (THA) MARISA Paleebat, (THA) JINTAPA Noipang Translator: LIU Rui Proofreader: BIAN Simin

Abstract:[Objective] In the past decades, climate change has caused unprecedented level of changes.As such it is imperative that preparations for the upcoming changes are to be made in a systematic and sustainable manner as soon as possible.Rapid urbanization of Bangkok has led to the reduction in green space and canal ways which exacerbated flooding, in turn diverting away the city’s resource in tackling climate change issues.Thus we propose that the application of landscape architectural knowledge can be a part in tackling the arising challenges through traditional adaptations methods in conjunction with nature-based solutions.[Methods/process] It is crucial that the city places great emphasis on the investment of Green Infrastructures (GI) and green spaces to effectively curate benefits from nature to the people.Development of abandoned lands in green spaces presents an opportunity to solve the city’s problems.Through the we!park platform, we developed abandoned spaces into public green spaces under the emphasis of increasing the opportunity to access rather than just increasing the amount of green space.The design process involved stakeholders in all related sectors whom all work toward the same objective in achieving high quality and sustainable green public space.[Results/Conclusion] The development of green space does not require a large plot of land, however it should be easily accessible and safe.Through the process of public participation in the designing process, the resulting space can better answer to the needs of the community along with being easier to maintain.The development of green spaces is a crucial aspect in urban development to help cope with the changing climate.Abandoned areas can be perceived as development opportunities; through the combination of cooperation, knowledge, funding and policies, we can simultaneously create opportunities for the business sector, health and wellness, and preservation of the environment.

Keywords:climate change; resilience; climate adaptation; pocket park; public space; green infrastructure; we!park

?BeijingLandscape ArchitectureJournal Periodical Office Co., Ltd.Published byLandscape ArchitectureJournal.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.

Climate change is one of the biggest problems in human society, crucially in the now and the near future.The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has prepared its Fifth Assessment Report, presenting sets of data indicating that the climate system from 1950 to 1959 has undergone a series of changes, most of them having never happened before in several decades.Both the atmosphere and the ocean have warmed, a lot of snow and ice are gone, the sea level has risen and the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere continues to increase[1].

Like the World Economic Forum, climate change and the failure of the international community to resolve this issue are highly prioritized.Being one of the most current global issues to be addressed since a 2°C increase in global temperature would result in 170% more floods especially in highly vulnerable regions, such as Southeast Asia, will be exceedingly affected by a potential global average sea level rise of 1.1 meters by the year 2100.Currently, natural disasters occur frequently around the world as evident and tend to become more severe while Thailand itself is often faced with natural disasters.Bangkok is ranked as one of the countries at high risk from the impact of climate change, rating Bangkok as one of the areas at high risk from coastal flooding and land subsidence in the near future.In addition, Thailand may also be affected by gradual changes such as the rise in sea level, an increase in temperature or severe weather phenomena such as floods,droughts or storms that are difficult to predict in advance[2].Such uncertainty affects both the economic and social sectors simultaneously including the lives of the people causing the country having to manage costs in solving such problems.Therefore, preparations should be made to deal with potential impacts in a comprehensive,systematic and sustainable manner.But at the same time, concerning that the expansion of Bangkok is growing into a megalopolis of 10 million people,orchards, rice fields and a canal system that has been a tool for mitigating floods in the past are being replaced by buildings and roads causing green space and canals in the city to diminish.The city has become full of hardscapes blocking waterways and causing catastrophic flooding to urban areas.Counting this as another important cause why it is so difficult to deal with climate change.

1 Solution: Grey to Green

Loss of green space along with urbanization bring about numerous environmental problems:urban heat islands are increasing from the rapidly growing concrete jungle and displacement of watershed areas.As a result, there are the problems of flooding, lack of food production, more smoke and dust, people lacking in healthy well-being space, places to we can recover physically and mentally by being close to nature.Not to mention the loss of urban animal habitats that affect the balance of urban ecosystems.Day by day, the severity of environmental problems caused by the growth of the city is becoming more and more prominent, together with the global turmoil that we are facing.As landscape architects, we should be implementing landscape architecture professional knowledge to help be part of the mechanism to drive solutions through the application of traditional wisdom together with nature-based solutions so that our city can adjust and be ready to cope for the challenges that arise continuously especially climate change.

The following are crucial factors to consider when getting ready to adjust to the shifting weather conditions.1) Attitude: We must accept the changes in weather conditions that occur because natural disasters and weather variations are unavoidable.2) Nature-Based Solutions: It is important to utilize natural resources as the foundation for urban development.Not only do they effectively address challenges, but they also promote sustainability.3) Stakeholders Engagement: To achieve our goals, we need the active participation of all related stakeholders involved in urban development, right from the beginning to the end.4) Empowerment: While implementing natural-based approaches to urban development, we need to communicate and engage with people effectively.This not only provides valuable insights and information but also raises awareness among individuals regarding the challenges we are all facing.5) Enhance Knowledge: We must seek knowledge and innovations to improve our approaches to urban development and share this knowledge to empower everyone in society.6) Data and Technology: Data and technology serve as tools to accurately depict and reflect the real situation, ensuring the correctness of our actions.7) Opportunity Creation: Transforming risks into opportunities means converting natural disasters and weather variations into chances to restore and enhance our cities in unprecedented ways.This leads to improved quality of life and increased sustainability, as well as economic opportunities and job creation in the future.8) Mechanism: We cannot solely rely on traditional governmental mechanisms.The world is moving towards platforms that emphasize increased collaboration.Given the complexity of the issues, we need to combine resources and work together from policy level and across different sectors, including private sector, academia, and civil society.9) Green: Green spaces should not be separate from the urban infrastructure.Instead, green spaces should be integrated into the fundamental infrastructure of our cities.They play a crucial role in ensuring our cities are prepared to cope with disasters and future challenges.Green infrastructure should encompass social infrastructure and promote the biological diversity of our food systems.

The creation of green infrastructure is equally important as other foundational structures in cities, such as roads and other public utilities,which require sincere investment alongside urban development.The definition of green infrastructure (GI) involves the utilization of nature, specifically incorporating green spaces into the urban infrastructure to harness the benefits of nature for the community.It can be seen as an areabased infrastructure that brings the advantages of nature to the public.The responsibilities of green infrastructure can be categorized into four types.1) Social Infrastructure refers to the creation of interactive spaces for people of all genders and ages to engage in group activities and creative endeavors.Examples of such spaces include activity areas, public parks, and playgrounds.2) Health Infrastructure encompasses spaces that contribute to the physical, mental, and intellectual well-being of individuals in the city, promoting their overall health.This includes therapeutic gardens, health parks, and sports ground.3) Food Infrastructure involves the establishment of safe food production areas that enable urban dwellers to consume nutritious and high-quality food for good health.This category includes urban farms that foster community participation and stimulate local economic development.4) Environmental Infrastructure comprises areas that mitigate the impact of environmental issues in the city, such as rainwater absorption, dust filtration, heat reduction, and carbon dioxide absorption.These spaces also serve as habitats for urban wildlife.

In this regard, we can develop a single green space that integrates multiple functions and roles to ensure a cost-effective investment amid the numerous challenges in urban areas.Importantly,we can harmonize these various Green Infrastructure components with diverse urban elements, including Green Buffers, Green Plains,Green Links, Green Buildings, and Green Pockets(Fig.1).

The Green Buffer is the largest form of green infrastructure among the five types.It serves as a comprehensive water management and urban management system, acting as a protective barrier and mitigating the impacts of urban flooding.Additionally, it significantly increases the amount of greenery, making the city more livable and sustainable.The Green Buffer encompasses static zones within the city that serve as water retention areas or agricultural spaces.Apart from functioning as agricultural production areas, they also contribute to the compactness and expansion of the city.An example illustrating the extensive use of Green Infrastructure is the “2050 Ultra Flood Plain—Ayutthaya” project①(Fig.2）.This project emerged in response to the devastating flooding in Thailand in 2011, prompting the Thai population to reflect on the shortcomings of urban development and question how we should coexist with water in the future.Ayutthaya, located in the lower Chao Phraya River basin, was one of the eight provinces most affected by the floods.Solving problems from top to bottom often leads to the construction of large-scale structures that significantly impact the environmental system.Another alternative is the concept of the “Ultra Flood Plain”, which involves minimal intervention and encourages communities to utilize their own water management networks within existing agricultural areas.This collaborative approach brings social, economic, and environmental benefits to Ayutthaya.Shma studied the flooded area extending to Chao Phraya and the crisis that occurred to establish a new balance between the water of Ayutthaya and the economic periphery of the lower Chao Phraya River basin in the next 50 years.

Green Plain is a large green space within the city, serving as an urban-level public park that accommodates a significant number of people and activities.It functions as both a water retention area and a natural area within the city, promoting increased biodiversity in fauna, flora, and cultivated lands.Additionally, the Green Plain allows the utilization of rotational crops as animal feed,contributing to food security.An example illustrating its purpose is the design of the Bang Bon Ecological Park (Fig.3), located in the outskirts of Bangkok.This park was designed with the goal of conserving the existing environmental system, restoring the original ecosystem, and preserving plant species.Furthermore, it creates a pleasant atmosphere in the area, providing a shaded environment for visitors and fostering an understanding of the importance of coexisting with nature.During the rainy season, the most significant benefit of the Bang Bon Ecological Park is its efficient water management capabilities,as it utilizes localized water retention methods,such as “monkey cheeks”②, to effectively store floodwaters and rainwater.

Green Link is a long corridor that traverses various parts of the city, serving as a combination of a public park, a bicycle path, and a pedestrian walkway, while also connecting transportation and recreational activities with the urban ecosystem.It promotes physical activity and functions as an extensive network that interconnects different areas through green spaces.The construction of Green Link can be implemented along canals,railways, or under expressway areas.By creating a pleasant atmosphere, Green Link allows people to enjoy the surrounding green landscapes,transforming concrete-filled spaces into lush areas with trees and gardens.Additionally, the interconnected tree network along the corridor serve as filters for dust particles and aid in air pollution absorption throughout the route.The Bangkok Green Link project (Fig.4) exemplifies the concept of “Revitalizing City Infrastructure to Relink Urban Life” , aiming to reconnect urban life and restore nature within the city.Bangkok, facing challenges in unplanned urban expansion,has a transportation network predominantly accommodating automobiles, with numerous underutilized areas beneath expressways and along canals.Ultimately, the city and its districts lack connectivity, resulting in social and environmental issues.Therefore, Bangkok Green Link proposes a potential revitalization framework that spans a total length of 54 kilometers, comprising a primary ring of 28 kilometers and intersecting linkages of 26 kilometers, fostering connectivity of public spaces, neighborhoods, and the city as a whole.Upon completion, this project would generate benefits in terms of environmental sustainability,social well-being, and economic development and investment, ultimately leading Bangkok towards a sustainable future.

Green Building has benefits and can be applied in dense areas or limited spaces, such as city centers or amidst tall buildings.Adding green spaces to existing building areas helps reduce temperatures both inside and outside the building.The cooling effect contributes to energy savings and ultimately reduces pollutant emissions.Green spaces integrated with buildings, including rooftops and various open areas, not only provide benefits to occupants but also have positive environmental impacts on the city.These green areas within buildings can serve as public spaces for recreational activities, exercise areas, rooftop farms, and vertical gardens.For example, the Mapletree Business Center II project in Singapore[3]③(Fig.5) was designed with the core concept of preserving the original natural features of the area to create an urban forest that not only supports the larger ecosystem but also creates smaller ecological systems within the space, suitable for work and maintenance.The use of local plants makes maintenance easier and suits the local climate conditions.Additionally, the inclusion of natural water circulation systems that utilize rainwater and natural wetlands contributes to long-term environmental well-being (Fig.6).Various activities,such as shared workspace, amphitheater, and sports ground, are seamlessly integrated to blend with the city’s natural context.Another interesting example is Jin Wellbeing County[4]④(Fig.7), which is the first elderly community development in Thailand.With over 40% green spaces, the design ensures that the area is intended to create opportunities for social interactions through designated meeting points.There are vegetable gardens for food preparation, outdoor dining areas,jogging tracks, and swimming pools.Safety is prioritized with handrails, adequate lighting, and slip-resistant surfaces to minimize the risk of accidents.The rehabilitation garden includes exercise equipment and massage paths, creating a physically resilient environment amidst vibrant and aromatic tree species.Intelligent water management systems, including bioswales and bioponds, are implemented to manage floods and retain water during dry seasons while also creating habitats for urban wildlife.In summary, Jin Wellbeing County provides a tranquil environment for both humans and nature, aiming to improve the quality of life.

Green Pocket is a small-sized area that is seamlessly integrated into communities, allowing easy access within walking distance.It is a green space not exceeding 2 acres in size, serving as a community-level public park that focuses on activities that meet the needs of people in the area.As an example, let’s explore the “we!park platform.”

In addition, another exemplary project we would like to highlight regarding air pollution,which is a major global issue, is the Safezone Shelter project⑤(Fig.8) A temporary structure designed with the aim of air filtration and raising awareness about air pollution.The project’s outcome is developed to address the challenge of creating spaces that protect people from air pollution, filter the air to make it clean, and provide a comfortable environment.Within the pavilion, a combination of air filtration machinery and natural air-filtering plants is incorporated.When polluted air is drawn in by the ventilation system, the first line of defense consists of upright trees and shrubs that trap dust particles through water vapor released from their leaves.Ground-covering plant species are also present to absorb pollutants and emissions.The air then passes through dust filters and cooling panels, gradually reducing the temperature to create a pleasant and refreshing atmosphere for the visitors inside.Furthermore,based on calculations, the trees within the pavilion,occupying an area of over 15 square meters,generate approximately 92.6 kilograms of oxygen per year.

2 We!park Platform: How Are We Going to Create Mechanism in Cocreate Green Space?

Bangkok, the capital city of Thailand, has experienced rapid growth and urban development focused primarily on increasing residential and economic areas.As a result, there is a lack of sufficient green public spaces and the emergence of vacant or fragmented spaces due to various developments.These issues lead to concerns about safety and damage to the overall aesthetics within these neighborhoods.

Developing parks from vacant or neglected spaces can be one solution to address these urban challenges.The development of parks or green public spaces does not necessarily require largescale areas but can utilize abandoned or unused spaces within different locations.These spaces can be owned by the government or private entities,but they should be easily accessible and ensure safety.The transformation process should involve the active participation and collaboration of the local community, catering to their needs and preferences.Examples of activities that can be incorporated based on community or user requirements include health parks, sports ground,playgrounds, urban vegetable gardens, or forest parks.Selecting shade-providing plants that also contribute to oxygen production, while maintaining biodiversity, will facilitate easy maintenance.

Currently, green space in Bangkok falls below the globally established standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO) in terms of both quantity per capita and accessibility.WHO has defined a minimum standard of 9 square meters of green space per person.However, the average green space per person in Bangkok is only 6.9 square meters.

Furthermore, when assessing the average accessibility of green space within walking distance,WHO recommends that it should be distributed within a range of 300-500 meters or approximately 10-15 minutes.In contrast, residents of Bangkok require an average time of 60 minutes or a distance of 4.5 kilometers to access green spaces.Alarmingly, only 13% of Bangkok’s population can access green spaces within a 400-meter radius.Additionally, shaded areas provided by trees constitute a mere 17% of the total green space.

As a result, the city of Bangkok has set a goal to increase its green space through the Green Bangkok 2030 project.This initiative aims to increase the green space from the current 6.9 square meters per person to 10 square meters per person and improve the accessibility of green spaces within a 15-minute walking distance.By achieving these targets, the percentage of the population with access to green spaces within a 400-meter radius will increase from 13% to 50%, and the shaded area coverage will expand from the existing 17% to 30% by the year 2030[5](Fig.9).

As of 2022, Bangkok had around 41,327,286.489 square meters of green space, with around 18,602,682.9 square meters of those being inaccessible to the public, accounting for almost half of the city’s green space.Without additional interventions, it is very unlikely that the green space target can be met under typical management of the government.Thus a platform was created to help facilitate the creation of accessible green space in the form of we!park.

We!park is a platform that originates from the concept of developing vacant or underutilized spaces into high-quality and sustainable green public areas.It focuses on selecting small-scale urban spaces and engaging various stakeholders,including government agencies, private sector, civil society, professional sectors, and educational institutions, to collaborate throughout the entire design process (Fig.9, 10).

Due to the challenges faced by the city of Bangkok, there is an opportunity to develop unused and waste spaces into small-scale green public areas known as Pocket Parks (ranging from 80 square meters to a maximum of 8,000 square meters).The focus is on increasing access to public spaces rather than solely expanding the quantity of green spaces.These pocket parks have specific requirements to ensure public accessibility and involve a participatory design process that engages stakeholders in all sectors.This approach aims to create high-quality and sustainable green public spaces.

The we!park parks can easily be integrated into different parts of the city to promote equal access to public spaces within a convenient walking distance of approximately 400～1,000 meters.These potential areas are developed through the collaborative efforts of the we!park platform,which encompasses all relevant sectors involved in the development of green public spaces and urban development, as previously mentioned.The platform leverages substantial resources and capital to support and enhance the efficiency and sustainability of the public space development process.

One crucial mechanism that plays a significant role in the development of parks in Bangkok is the district-level government offices.we!park has implemented the Park Clinic & Park Coaching project, which serves as a central hub to coordinate and connect various stakeholders,including government agencies, the public, private sector, and other relevant parties within the area.This initiative focuses on designing inclusive spaces that are suitable for everyone, ensuring ongoing maintenance and care of the designed areas, as well as providing knowledge support based on the specific needs of each individual area.The ultimate goal is to create more small-sized parks that are community-oriented and cater to different neighborhoods.

The Park Clinic & Park Coaching project is a capacity-building initiative aimed at developing the expertise of government officials in park development through participatory learning.It involves training government officials from the six district groups: North Bangkok group, North Thonburi group, East Bangkok group, Central Bangkok group, South Thonburi group, and South Bangkok group.The training enables these officials to become experts and actively contribute to the design process, ensuring that the parks meet the requirements and desires of the people.Each district selects one area within its jurisdiction to be jointly designed and developed by all five sectors,including government agencies, private sector,universities, professional sectors, and the public, to create the most responsive and sustainable park in each respective district.

The Park Clinic & Park Coaching project of each district group will span a total of three consecutive days, consisting of a 2.5-day training session and a half-day field trip to a sustainable prototype park, such as the Lankila Phat 1 sports ground in the NHA Khlong Chan community.Following this, each district will commence studying the context, characteristics of the local area, and the specific challenges of their respective locations.This understanding will guide them towards appropriate design solutions.

Throughout this process, collaboration is sought with academic institutions specializing in architecture, such as universities offering architectural education.Professional organizations,such as the Association of Thai Architects, provide consultancy services for green space development.Finally, the project concludes with monitoring the progress of the design work, including discussions,exchanges, and revisions, ensuring active participation from the local communities in each district.Once this collaborative process is completed, the designs are then entered into a competition for the 15-Minute Park, and subsequently utilized for further development and construction as the ongoing 15-Minute Parks in each district.

This project will provide us with a comprehensive framework for initial development,encompassing a total of 50 ideas.Among these ideas, there will be 25 pop-up park areas that serve as experimental prototypes to be built.Subsequently, a Summer School program will be conducted to study the potential of these new district-level spaces across all six areas.Additionally, there will be internships offered by six organizations, culminating in the creation of a pilot model at the neighborhood level, with collaboration from both public and private sectors,involving at least 13 areas.Following this, we will proceed to construct physical spaces throughout the city, establishing 15-Minute Parks.This endeavor will entail support from the budget plan of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, as well as private sector contributions, and fundraising efforts to ensure that residents of Bangkok can access green spaces within a 15-minute radius citywide.

From the green public space distribution strategy of we!park, which focuses on increasing the number of small-sized green public spaces and integrating them equitably into the city to ensure easy and widespread access for everyone, we recognize the potential of numerous overlooked spaces within the city.We are currently undertaking efforts to transform these spaces into sustainable green public areas.This initiative begins with pilot projects in five potential areas (Fig.11), including:1) Wat Hua Lamphong Rukkhaniwet Pocket Park:A community-level public park, developed from donated land into a prototype of a small-scale pocket park, has been successfully implemented through a collaborative design process involving the Department of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, and various professional designers.The construction of this park has been supported by the financial contributions from the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, as well as crowdfunding efforts through the designated platform, called Taejai.com.2) Choduek Community Pocket Park: A recreational and playground area located along the Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem canal in the vicinity of the Talad Noi market.The design of this park was collaboratively developed with the participation of students and professional designers, with financial support from the private sector for its construction.3) Ekkamai Pocket Park: A public park located along the bustling Saen Saep canal, developed from a leftover space after a bridge was constructed across the canal.The park’s development follows an awardwinning design that was developed collaboratively with the community through a design competition.Currently, it is in the budgeting phase for construction, supported by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration.4) Saeng Thip Sports Ground: Located beneath an expressway, this area was once a neglected space underneath the elevated road.However, through a collaborative design process involving the local community and private sector support, it has been transformed into a sport ground.Furthermore, it is part of a growing network of interconnected spaces, currently expanding into the second phase.5) Klong San Pop-up Park: This creative space is situated along the Chao Phraya River and has been temporarily granted the use of private land for a period of 12 years.It has undergone a process of fundraising and collaboration to transform the area from a garbage dump in the Khlong San neighborhood into a space for learning, creativity, and cultural activities.It is evolving into a new community and neighborhood node, serving as a recreational area and a desired destination.It offers opportunities for sports, relaxation, herb cultivation, and waste sorting, among other functions.

Over the course of several years, we!park has gained valuable insights through its work,highlighting the use of three essential tools:1) Database: we!park has developed the website wepark.co as a platform for interested individuals to access information and data on the we!park project, including operational details and organizational information.The database collects and consolidates physical progress reports, green public space situational data, and specific details regarding the development of green spaces in each area.Additionally, it connects users to the web application called “Green Finder”, which serves as a channel for communication, statistics, and the current state of green public spaces.2) Knowledge Platform: We have an online communication channel designed to update the work progress of we!park and share various knowledge related to green public space development.This platform allows interested individuals to access information,search for data, and stay informed about news and updates.Its purpose is to promote the development of green public spaces by providing knowledge and encouraging active participation from everyone.3) Guidebook: A guide to creating a small green space (Pocket Park) that draws lessons from the creation of we!park in the past two years.It is summarized as a working guideline,principles, examples of case studies, and exercises that can be used to develop small green spaces in the community.

3 Conclusion

In response to the changing climate conditions, the development of green public spaces can serve as a solution to enhance preparedness.The development of such spaces has multidimensional benefits that improve the quality of life for individuals.Firstly, it positively impacts the environment by distributing green areas throughout the city, contributing to biodiversity and providing shade.Additionally, it helps to mitigate urban heat islands, thereby reducing temperatures within the city.Secondly, from a social perspective, green spaces serve as recreational areas and meeting points for communities, fostering stronger social connections and building resilient communities.

Not only that, but it also boosts the economy at both the micro and macro levels, from the birth of the trading space, encouraging spending, to increasing the value of land from green spaces.Most importantly, it positively affects physical and mental health and much more.Therefore, allowing the city to adapt to the changing world should transpire simultaneously with the creation of green spaces and recognizing that abandoned areas are opportunities for development.

Building a society with sustainable happiness will only ensue when we realize the problem the city faces also lies the opportunities for development.In which it must incorporate cooperation, knowledge, funding, and policies to help stimulate and create opportunities for the business sector.Promoting health, preserving the environment, and being ready to cope with the ongoing climate change so that the society and the planet we are living in can be sustainably happy and resilient.

Notes:

① 2050 Ultra Floodplain Ayutthaya Project is designed by Shma Company Limited, located in Ayutthaya, Thailand,and completed in 2011.The project’s design strategy is to transform the existing irrigation network which covers 70%of the whole province to become water detention network,meaning no additional land is needed to be reclaimed.Since the agricultural area surrounds the urban area on all sides, the agricultural area with its irrigation network can serve as a buffer protecting the urban area from floodwater from outside.There is more information in detail:https://shmadesigns.com/work/2050-ultra-flood-plain.

② Monkey cheek is the Thai term for water detention basin which originated from the late King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s initiative in flood prevention, citing the similarity in mechanism to how monkeys can stuff food in their cheeks before gradually ingesting the food over time.

③ Mapletree Business City II is designed by Shma Company Limited, located in Singapore, and completed in 2016, with a site area of 35,000 m2.There is more information in detail: https://shmadesigns.com/work/mapletree-business-city-ii.

④ Jin Wellbeing County is designed by Shma Company Limited, located in Bangkok, Thailand, and completed in 2018, with a site area of 228,000 m2.There is more information in detail: https://shmadesigns.com/work/jinwellbeing-county.

⑤ Safezone Shelter is designed by Shma Company Limited, located in Bangkok, Thailand, and completed in 2020, with a site area of 150 m2.There is more information in detail: https://shmadesigns.com/work/safezone-shelter.

Sources of Figure:

Fig.1～3, 6 ?Shma Company Limited; Fig.4?Shma Company Limited and Shma SoEn Company Limited;Fig.5?Wison Tungthhunya; Fig.7?Panoramic Studio; Fig.8?Napon Jaturapuchapornpong; Fig.9?we!park and mor and farmer; Fig.10～11?we!park.