謝郁芳 張先翠
摘要 綜述糖尿病病人圍術(shù)期高血糖對(duì)其術(shù)后轉(zhuǎn)歸的影響,并針對(duì)發(fā)生機(jī)制、臨床預(yù)測(cè)因素、血糖控制目標(biāo)等進(jìn)行分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)圍術(shù)期高血糖與器官損傷、術(shù)后并發(fā)癥及死亡率存在著明顯的聯(lián)系,以期給臨床醫(yī)護(hù)在血糖管理方案的制定方面提供參考依據(jù),利于病人圍術(shù)期安全和轉(zhuǎn)歸。
關(guān)鍵詞 糖尿??;圍術(shù)期;血糖;術(shù)后轉(zhuǎn)歸;綜述;護(hù)理
doi:10.12102/j.issn.2095-8668.2023.07.012
糖尿?。╠iabetes mellitus,DM)是指與胰島素抵抗和/或胰島素血癥相關(guān)的血糖慢性升高[1],全球糖尿病的發(fā)病數(shù)和發(fā)病率均呈現(xiàn)明顯增加[2],已經(jīng)成為一個(gè)嚴(yán)重的公共衛(wèi)生問題。糖尿病病人因長(zhǎng)期存在內(nèi)分泌代謝紊亂會(huì)出現(xiàn)一定程度的心[3]、腦[4]、腎[5]等重要器官損傷,且在面對(duì)手術(shù)、麻醉、禁食、禁飲等刺激時(shí)不可避免地引起血糖的劇烈變化,從而加重重要臟器損傷,提高感染、傷口愈合不良及住院時(shí)間延長(zhǎng)的發(fā)生率,其死亡率更是達(dá)到非糖尿病病人的5倍[6]?;诖耍狙芯烤C述圍術(shù)期高血糖發(fā)生的機(jī)制及其高血糖水平對(duì)圍術(shù)期器官功能的影響,旨在加強(qiáng)醫(yī)務(wù)人員對(duì)圍術(shù)期血糖水平管理的認(rèn)識(shí),以采取及時(shí)有效的措施,保證病人安全,進(jìn)而提高醫(yī)療護(hù)理質(zhì)量。
1 圍術(shù)期高血糖的發(fā)生機(jī)制
圍術(shù)期高血糖的病理原因包括但不限于病人合并有糖尿病、其他代謝綜合征和各種應(yīng)激因素引起的胰島素抵抗或分泌障礙等。在生理應(yīng)激期間,交感神經(jīng)刺激增加,隨后反調(diào)節(jié)激素(兒茶酚胺、皮質(zhì)醇、胰高血糖素和生長(zhǎng)激素)水平升高,并通過糖異生(主要是肝臟)和糖原分解導(dǎo)致內(nèi)源性葡萄糖產(chǎn)生的增加[7];而應(yīng)激后,體內(nèi)白細(xì)胞介素-1、白細(xì)胞介素-6、腫瘤壞死因子、一氧化氮等細(xì)胞因子亦會(huì)大量釋放,直接引起胰島素受體底物1及其下游信號(hào)分子的變化和表達(dá)一些蛋白,從而抑制胰島素受體信號(hào)傳導(dǎo),出現(xiàn)了應(yīng)激性高血糖[8]。Toll樣受體4(TLR4)作為先天免疫系統(tǒng)的一類模式識(shí)別受體,其表達(dá)和胰島素抵抗的加重密切相關(guān),也被認(rèn)為參與了糖尿病及并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生發(fā)展[9]。
2 圍術(shù)期高血糖的臨床預(yù)測(cè)因素
圍術(shù)期高血糖的兩個(gè)影響因素是程度和持續(xù)時(shí)間。首先,術(shù)后循環(huán)胰島素水平生理反應(yīng)性短暫下降,最明顯為術(shù)后第1天,也可能持續(xù)數(shù)天或數(shù)周;其次,是手術(shù)部位、手術(shù)方式、術(shù)中液體管理、禁食禁飲及麻醉。且在擇期腹部手術(shù)的病人中,術(shù)后5 d內(nèi)胰島素敏感性平均下降50%,并且在術(shù)后9~21 d內(nèi)恢復(fù)正常,而侵入性較小手術(shù)(如腹腔鏡手術(shù))胰島素抵抗增加較少[10]。此外,術(shù)中液體的選擇也可能在調(diào)節(jié)術(shù)后血糖水平和胰島素抵抗方面發(fā)揮作用,早期認(rèn)為圍術(shù)期高血糖風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加的因素也包括了使用激素和含糖營(yíng)養(yǎng)液;隨后又發(fā)現(xiàn),與傳統(tǒng)禁食相比,術(shù)前給予葡萄糖輸注反而可以減輕術(shù)后胰島素抵抗和應(yīng)激性高血糖的發(fā)生[10],因此,需要更多研究結(jié)果循證這一問題的答案。當(dāng)然,禁食時(shí)間過長(zhǎng)、不合適的降糖治療、術(shù)后身體不活動(dòng)也有可能會(huì)引起病人血糖劇烈波動(dòng)。麻醉方式及藥物的選擇可能導(dǎo)致胰島素抵抗的發(fā)生[11],年齡和體質(zhì)指數(shù)也是術(shù)中胰島素抵抗不可忽視的重要因素[12]。
3 圍術(shù)期血糖水平的控制目標(biāo)
現(xiàn)糖尿病術(shù)前監(jiān)測(cè)指標(biāo)通常包括血糖、糖化血紅蛋白(HbA1c)與血糖變異度,但尚不清楚這些指標(biāo)的監(jiān)測(cè)與評(píng)估是否有助于改善病人的術(shù)后轉(zhuǎn)歸,而圍術(shù)期血糖控制水平與術(shù)后死亡率之間的關(guān)系也缺乏統(tǒng)一的認(rèn)識(shí)。各國(guó)協(xié)會(huì)對(duì)圍術(shù)期血糖水平管理的建議亦各不相同,目前大多數(shù)認(rèn)為嚴(yán)格的血糖控制除了可能會(huì)容易引起低血糖,其他益處不明顯,提倡將血糖控制目標(biāo)適當(dāng)放寬。《圍術(shù)期血糖管理專家共識(shí)》(2016版)提出了術(shù)前控制血糖標(biāo)準(zhǔn):餐前血糖≤7.8 mmol/L,餐后血糖≤10.0 mmol/L;但也需要根據(jù)手術(shù)方式不同而進(jìn)行調(diào)整:如整形科需要降低血糖目標(biāo)值至6.0~8.0 mmol/L;而對(duì)腦血管疾病病人來說,更多考慮對(duì)低血糖的耐受能力,主張血糖目標(biāo)值≤12.0 mmol/L。綜合評(píng)估后,術(shù)前血糖目標(biāo)上限≤10.0 mmol/L,隨機(jī)或餐后2 h≤12.0 mmol/L。還要注意長(zhǎng)期血糖增高的病人在術(shù)前不能下降過快,保證病人安全。HbA1c≥6.5%是糖尿病診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)[13],可以反映術(shù)前3個(gè)月的血糖控制情況,且也被證明對(duì)病人預(yù)后有一定的預(yù)測(cè)作用。對(duì)于糖尿病病人來說,HbA1c≤7%被認(rèn)為血糖控制尚可;而建議HbA1c>8.5%的病人推遲手術(shù),以預(yù)防手術(shù)意外的發(fā)生。
此外,應(yīng)注意到葡萄糖變異性與不良預(yù)后的關(guān)系?,F(xiàn)有可靠準(zhǔn)確的短期血糖波動(dòng)評(píng)估參數(shù)有:平均葡萄糖波動(dòng)幅度(MAGE)、葡萄糖標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差(BGSD)、變異系數(shù)(CV)。早前基礎(chǔ)試驗(yàn)證明了短期血糖波動(dòng)造成了氧化應(yīng)激、炎癥和內(nèi)皮功能紊亂,從而加速了動(dòng)脈粥樣硬化的發(fā)展,且不論急性或慢性血糖波動(dòng)均可引起胰島素抵抗,尤以急性血糖波動(dòng)更嚴(yán)重[14],這與有學(xué)者研究發(fā)現(xiàn)MAGE是預(yù)測(cè)冠狀動(dòng)脈疾病嚴(yán)重程度的獨(dú)立影響因素結(jié)果一致[15]。也有學(xué)者提出BGSD>2.7 mmol/L是2型糖尿病合并急性冠狀動(dòng)脈綜合征病人發(fā)生心血管不良事件的獨(dú)立預(yù)測(cè)因素。且近期發(fā)現(xiàn)糖尿病病人血糖變異度越高,住院時(shí)間越長(zhǎng),發(fā)生并發(fā)癥風(fēng)險(xiǎn)越多,術(shù)后30 d死亡風(fēng)險(xiǎn)也越大[16]。因此,需要根據(jù)具體情況去選擇術(shù)前血糖監(jiān)測(cè)方式,并保證術(shù)前血糖水平的穩(wěn)定。
4 高血糖對(duì)術(shù)后轉(zhuǎn)歸的影響
早期研究血糖控制對(duì)術(shù)后不良轉(zhuǎn)歸較少,直至20世紀(jì)90年代才有研究認(rèn)為高血糖不僅直接影響免疫功能、病原體生長(zhǎng)和血管通透性,而且長(zhǎng)期刺激微血管系統(tǒng),最后增加圍術(shù)期死亡率。分析可能原因有:①手術(shù)和麻醉的刺激會(huì)升高病人血糖:小手術(shù)通常升高1.11 mmol/L;較大手術(shù)則為2.05~4.48 mmol/L。血糖每增加1 mmol/L就會(huì)將糖尿病病人病死率提高20%,非糖尿病病人病死率提高12%。②糖尿病病人本身可能存在的重要器官(如心、腦、腎等)損害,容易引起血糖波動(dòng)增加死亡率。③高血糖使外周血白細(xì)胞趨化能力減弱,抗體減少,免疫功能下降,感染概率增高,增加了死亡率,糖尿病大鼠的傷口會(huì)持續(xù)發(fā)生炎癥反應(yīng),而術(shù)前長(zhǎng)期良好的血糖控制則會(huì)提升愈合率[17]。現(xiàn)將糖尿病對(duì)心、腦、腎等重要器官及其手術(shù)預(yù)后影響總結(jié)如下。
4.1 圍術(shù)期高血糖對(duì)腎臟的影響
糖尿病是急性腎損傷(acute kidney injury,AKI)發(fā)生的危險(xiǎn)因素之一,特別是心臟手術(shù)相關(guān)性急性腎損傷(CSA-AKI)[18]。即使胰島素治療后,相關(guān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)依然不能得到改善[19]。主要病理機(jī)制是急性高血糖可致腎臟出現(xiàn)明顯的管狀形態(tài)和功能損傷,并通過腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)/哺乳動(dòng)物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR) 通路抑制間質(zhì),從而加重線粒體損傷和腎管損傷[20];同時(shí)還可通過強(qiáng)化氧化應(yīng)激、炎癥和凋亡而加劇腎缺血再灌注損傷引起急性腎損傷的發(fā)生[21]。而術(shù)中血糖波動(dòng)較大(不一定是高血糖)時(shí),亦能增加CSA-AKI的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[22],此研究結(jié)果與兒童病人心臟手術(shù)[23]、新生兒腦損傷手術(shù)[24]及肝移植手術(shù)[25]結(jié)果一致。早期很多研究認(rèn)為糖尿病病人術(shù)前HbA1c水平與急性腎損傷預(yù)后無明顯關(guān)聯(lián);非糖尿病病人的非心臟手術(shù)術(shù)前HbA1c和術(shù)中高血糖,與急性腎損傷預(yù)后關(guān)系越密切[26];但低血糖與急性腎損傷同樣密切相關(guān)[27]。但應(yīng)注意的是,嚴(yán)格控制血糖并不能降低CSA-AKI發(fā)生率[28]。改善全球腎臟病預(yù)后組織(KDIGO)為了預(yù)防中度至重度急性腎損傷的發(fā)生制定的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)來降低血糖[29],經(jīng)對(duì)多個(gè)國(guó)家的臨床調(diào)查研究發(fā)現(xiàn),能很好地做到圍術(shù)期血糖的控制只有41.1%[30]。因此,過高或者過低的血糖水平對(duì)急性腎損傷都會(huì)產(chǎn)生不利影響,而更加合理有效的圍術(shù)期血糖控制策略尚待更多循證醫(yī)學(xué)研究。
4.2 圍術(shù)期高血糖對(duì)術(shù)后認(rèn)知功能的影響
近年來,多項(xiàng)研究表明術(shù)后認(rèn)知功能障礙(postoperative cognitive dysfunction,POCD)與圍術(shù)期高血糖存在著一定的聯(lián)系,嚴(yán)格的圍術(shù)期血糖管理可以明顯降低術(shù)后POCD發(fā)生概率[31-33]。高血糖可使病人海馬和額葉皮質(zhì)的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化、星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞丟失和神經(jīng)元損傷;而高磷酸t(yī)au的形成亦可引起的神經(jīng)退化會(huì)導(dǎo)致糖尿病相關(guān)的認(rèn)知缺陷,且有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)tau高磷化程度與血漿葡萄糖水平和認(rèn)知功能障礙程度呈正相關(guān)[34]。再者,胰島素抵抗在心臟手術(shù)后病人POCD中也起著潛在的作用,與其發(fā)病率和炎癥因素的增加有關(guān)[35]。無論是否診斷為糖尿病,術(shù)前HbA1c水平升高都是POCD的危險(xiǎn)因素[36-37]。在心臟手術(shù)中,嚴(yán)格的圍術(shù)期血糖控制可能有助于預(yù)防持續(xù)的POCD[31]。而術(shù)中持續(xù)的高血糖與術(shù)后譫妄(postoperative delirium,POD)有關(guān),而與POCD無關(guān),這一點(diǎn)對(duì)于非糖尿病病人尤為明顯[38]。在肝移植及心臟手術(shù)中,血糖變異水平亦與POCD之間存在線性關(guān)系[39-40]。因此,長(zhǎng)期的高血糖控制不佳和圍術(shù)期持續(xù)的高血糖均會(huì)引起術(shù)后認(rèn)知功能的下降。
4.3 圍術(shù)期高血糖對(duì)心血管功能的影響
糖尿病或慢性高血糖病人的心血管疾病發(fā)生率是正常人的2倍,包括冠狀動(dòng)脈疾病(CAD)、心肌梗死(MI)、中風(fēng)、心律失常、心力衰竭和心臟猝死[41]。非糖尿病病人心肌梗死和心臟手術(shù)期間,也會(huì)因?yàn)槿斫M織低灌注而出現(xiàn)高血糖[42]。因此,心臟手術(shù)本身的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)加上高血糖的影響,病人發(fā)生高乳酸血癥和乳酸中毒的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增高,也會(huì)加重組織缺血缺氧,這將會(huì)增加病人呼吸和循環(huán)支持的需求,也會(huì)延長(zhǎng)病人住院時(shí)間[43]。循證醫(yī)學(xué)研究已經(jīng)證實(shí)術(shù)中高血糖是心臟手術(shù)后并發(fā)癥(包括死亡)的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素[44],而作為心臟手術(shù)后常見的并發(fā)癥的術(shù)后心房顫動(dòng),也被證明和持續(xù)高血糖和急性血糖波動(dòng)密切相關(guān)[45]。與非糖尿病病人相比,糖尿病病人圍術(shù)期高血糖、高HbA1c水平以及高血糖變異性與非心臟外科術(shù)后感染和其他并發(fā)癥的發(fā)病率較高呈正相關(guān),且高HbA1c水平可增加術(shù)后并發(fā)癥和術(shù)后血糖控制的難度[16,46-47],這種情況也發(fā)生在術(shù)前36 h的高血糖狀態(tài)及高血糖變異性病人身上[48]。其主要機(jī)制可能是圍術(shù)期高血糖可降低術(shù)后基礎(chǔ)桿菌計(jì)數(shù)、抑制T細(xì)胞活化和單細(xì)胞功能,使病人術(shù)前即處于較高的免疫活化狀態(tài)而致術(shù)后感染的發(fā)生[49]。
圍術(shù)期血糖控制不良(圍術(shù)期血糖≥13.9 mmol/L)可以影響病人術(shù)后30 d死亡率/發(fā)病率,此類病人是正常血糖病人心臟術(shù)后死亡率的2倍[50-51]。因此,控制糖尿病病人圍術(shù)期血糖是很有必要的。值得注意的是,非糖尿病病人也需要嚴(yán)格控制[52-53]。然而,臨床實(shí)踐中只有15% 的心臟手術(shù)病人實(shí)現(xiàn)了血糖控制,不同醫(yī)院的實(shí)施效果也存在很大差異[54]。因此,改善圍術(shù)期高血糖狀態(tài),有利于保障病人圍術(shù)期安全,減少術(shù)后感染等并發(fā)癥和醫(yī)療支出,也需要加強(qiáng)醫(yī)護(hù)人員和病人對(duì)高血糖危害的認(rèn)識(shí)。
4.4 圍術(shù)期高血糖對(duì)其他器官手術(shù)的影響
在骨科四肢關(guān)節(jié)成形手術(shù)中,糖尿病是膝關(guān)節(jié)置換術(shù)后1~2年關(guān)節(jié)持續(xù)疼痛的危險(xiǎn)因素[55],而持續(xù)皮下胰島素輸液可降低術(shù)后感染風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[56]。高HbA1c和圍術(shù)期高血糖(≥11.1 mmol/L)可明顯增加關(guān)節(jié)手術(shù)部位感染風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[57],而術(shù)前高血糖還進(jìn)一步提高術(shù)后關(guān)節(jié)無菌松動(dòng)的發(fā)生率[58],篩查HbA1c和圍術(shù)期血糖是預(yù)測(cè)感染的有效方法[59],大樣本的臨床研究也認(rèn)為合理的葡萄糖管理計(jì)劃可以降低術(shù)后葡萄糖水平[60]。
糖尿病和移植后糖尿病(PTDM)已經(jīng)被證實(shí)影響移植器官存活率和器官接受病人的生存率[61]。而圍術(shù)期高血糖影響移植手術(shù)的成功率,主要是因?yàn)榧毙愿哐峭ㄟ^對(duì)TLR4信號(hào)通路的上向調(diào)節(jié),可加重肺缺血-再灌注損傷(I/RI),以TLR4為目標(biāo)來進(jìn)行血糖管理似乎能夠改善結(jié)局[62]。
肝切除過程中的高血糖還可能與肝細(xì)胞損傷的程度有關(guān),這類病人肝臟術(shù)后更容易發(fā)生胰島素抵抗,圍術(shù)期對(duì)血糖的控制更為嚴(yán)格且必要,最好圍術(shù)期血糖保持在10 mmol/L以下更為適宜[63-64]。高血糖狀態(tài)可影響胃癌手術(shù)的進(jìn)展與惡化[65-66],且在一項(xiàng)急診外科手術(shù)研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),HbA1c≥6.0%或術(shù)后隨機(jī)血糖≥11.1 mmol/L出現(xiàn)重大并發(fā)癥的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)比非糖尿病病人高4倍[67]。值得注意的是,1型糖尿病與2型糖尿病,在圍術(shù)期治療效果相差很大[68]。因此,根據(jù)糖尿病類型采用合適的血糖調(diào)控策略方能更好地調(diào)控圍術(shù)期血糖,以減少術(shù)后并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生。
4.5 圍術(shù)期高血糖影響新型冠狀病毒(COVID-19)感染病人手術(shù)預(yù)后
糖尿病是COVID-19感染住院病人常見的共病,糖尿病病人因輕度慢性炎癥而發(fā)生細(xì)胞因子風(fēng)暴,導(dǎo)致COVID-19病人產(chǎn)生不良后果[69]。調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)COVID-19病例中,合并有糖尿病病人的死亡率更高[70-72]。而2型糖尿病病人術(shù)前高血糖與COVID-19病人術(shù)后入住重癥監(jiān)護(hù)室(ICU)率密切相關(guān)。不可忽視的是,發(fā)生應(yīng)激性高血糖的非糖尿病病人預(yù)后更差[73]。COVID-19感染還是糖尿病病人糖尿病酮癥酸中毒(DKA)的誘發(fā)因素,增加了其死亡率[74]。臨床研究證實(shí)基礎(chǔ)胰島素注射方案安全有效地實(shí)現(xiàn)住院病人血糖控制,而良好的血糖控制有效降低了相關(guān)并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生率[75]。因此,COVID-19病人在圍術(shù)期更應(yīng)重視血糖的調(diào)控,至于確切的血糖控制指標(biāo)尚需更多的循證醫(yī)學(xué)證據(jù)支持。
5 結(jié)語
在外科手術(shù)人群中,導(dǎo)致醫(yī)院高血糖的因素很多,且伴或不伴糖尿病的高血糖可能未被識(shí)別。而現(xiàn)階段循證醫(yī)學(xué)表明,糖尿病病人圍術(shù)期血糖水平波動(dòng)較非糖尿病病人明顯,高血糖狀態(tài)會(huì)損害重要器官功能并導(dǎo)致各種術(shù)后并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生。然而,因?yàn)榧膊『筒∪饲闆r的復(fù)雜性,糖尿病病人圍術(shù)期血糖調(diào)控水平無統(tǒng)一的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),尚需要更多的臨床研究完善糖尿病病人圍術(shù)期血糖評(píng)估、控制、管理以及護(hù)理。因此,在該人群中,管理高血糖的明智方法包括術(shù)前識(shí)別糖尿病和住院病人高血糖的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),并在術(shù)前、術(shù)中和術(shù)后期間明智地個(gè)性化的控制血糖并避免低血糖,以優(yōu)化圍術(shù)期病人結(jié)局。
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(收稿日期:2022-03-07;修回日期:2023-03-13)
(本文編輯王雅潔)