Shakespeare’s Originality評(píng)《莎士比亞的原創(chuàng)性》

約翰·馬蘭

Shakespeare inhabited a literary culture in which imitation was applauded. This erudite study teases out1 his alchemical2 transformations of what he had read or seen.莎士比亞處在一個(gè)文學(xué)崇尚“因襲舊作”的時(shí)代?！渡勘葋喌脑瓌?chuàng)性》一書內(nèi)容翔實(shí)，梳理了莎士比亞提煉融合所讀所見進(jìn)行戲劇創(chuàng)作的過程。

For a long time， the sedulous student who wants to see Shakespeare in the act of creation has been able to go to the extracts contained in the eight fat volumes of Geoffrey Bulloughs Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. Here you can find the stories that he pilfered3 and changed. You can see how he twisted two completely separate tales together to make The Merchant of Venice， for example， or decided to kill Lear and Cordelia at the end of King Lear when in his chronicle source4 both survived， or made Othello Desdemonas murderer5， when in Cinthios original Italian story， it is Iago who does the deed. The volumes give a dizzying sense of the playwrights narrative dexterity as you see him extracting and welding together the elements from others narratives.

Read John Kerrigan6s intense， condensed account of the playwrights creative borrowing and the dizziness only increases. Focusing on a handful of plays， Kerrigan， one of the worlds leading Shakespeare scholars， shows that Bullough has recorded only the more obvious half of it. Kerrigan takes us beyond Shakespeares primary sources into the deeper texture7 of his allusions and passages of imitation. His originality， by this account， was largely a gift for the alchemical transformation of what he had read， heard recited， or remembered from his days on a hard bench at Stratford grammar school.

Kerrigans introduction ruminates8 about the meanings of originality， a concept unknown to critics before the later 18th century. Shakespeare inhabited a literary culture in which imitation of earlier models was applauded. Rhetoric （the Renaissance version of creative writing） approved of “invention”， but specified that this meant the clever combination of inherited elements. Yet Shakespeare is also different from his contemporaries： he is not showing off his literary knowledge but adapting narrative patterns and fragments of dialogue lodged9 in his memory. Kerrigan quotes Emerson10 observing that “All minds quote”; yet most of Shakespeares quotations—or inventive misquotations—would not have been spotted by his first audiences.

A chapter devoted to Much Ado About Nothing reveals a play that is “pieced11 and patched and recycled” out of various Italian tales， its radical novelty a matter of the “piecemeal superflux” of reused materials. You will have to read slowly—and maybe Google—to understand the variety of materials （Ariosto12， Matteo Bandello13， Luigi Pasqualigo14） that go into this nearly tragic comedy. The reward is a vivid sense of how original it was to borrow.

Traditional assurances that Shakespeare knew next to15 nothing of Greek tragedy are upended in an analysis of King Lear and its relationship to Sophocless two Oedipus plays16. Shakespeare had access to these via widely available Greek/Latin parallel texts （we should take with a pinch of salt17 Ben Jonsons aspersions about his “small Latin and less Greek”）. In particular， he found his way back to Greek tragedy via Senecas Latin versions of Greek originals. The scene on Dover Cliff， where the blind Gloucester thinks he has been led by Edgar， the son he does not recognise18， has its “original” in Senecas Phoenissae， where Antigone leads Oedipus in search of a convenient precipice19. “Layers of imitation resonate back to antiquity20.”

In his final chapter， Kerrigan tackles one of the few Shakespeare plays supposed to have no specific source， The Tempest. He finds here not only echoes of contemporary writing about the colonisation of Virginia and Bermuda21， but also the reuse of sentiments culled22 from Virgils celebration of the powers of agriculture， his Georgics. Where Shakespeare is supposed most natural he is in fact most literary23.

The book is unrepentantly erudite， but the erudition is as diverting as it can be daunting. There are digressions into mens hairstyles in Renaissance England （essential to some of the jokes in Much Ado）， contemporary agricultural experiments （ditto24 The Tempest）， or manners of walking on the stage （where actors strutted or “jetted”25 or jigged26 or “tripped”27 or—like Richard III—balefully limped）. The chapter on Much Ado， a play in which a servant almost triggers a tragedy by dressing up as her mistress， traces its reliance on contemporary publications about fashionable dress. Elizabethan England still had sumptuary laws28， placing stern limits on the wearing of luxurious apparel. “Actors were an affront to these rules，” elaborate costuming being one of dramas essential resources. How exciting it was to see someone flagrantly29 dressed in the wrong clothes！

The four main chapters began as lectures30， and Kerrigan clearly expected his listeners to concentrate hard. He is confident he can use words such as “sticomythic” and “haruspication” without further explanation， that Euripides31 and Virgil32 are our familiars， and that the plot details of Shakespeares plays are hardwired in our heads. The text bristles with33 endnote numbers， taking the reader—if he or she wishes—to a compendium34 of Shakespearean lore at the back of the book. But the trust in our literary curiosity is intoxicating. Who wants Shakespeare to be made easy when he was so beautifully and originally complex？? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ■

很久以來，如有勤勉的學(xué)生有意考察莎士比亞的創(chuàng)作過程，可以去查閱杰弗里·布洛厚厚的八卷本《莎士比亞的敘事和戲劇來源》中的一些片段。該書記錄了莎士比亞戲劇所挪用和改編的故事原型：比如，你會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)《威尼斯商人》是將兩則毫無干系的故事糅在一起改編而成;《李爾王》中，李爾和科迪莉亞皆不得善終，而故事源起的《李爾王與三個(gè)女兒的真實(shí)編年史》中，兩人結(jié)局圓滿;莎翁筆下的奧賽羅殺死了苔絲狄蒙娜，而在欽齊奧原創(chuàng)的意大利故事中，伊阿古才是殺害苔絲狄蒙娜的兇手。這八卷本展現(xiàn)了莎士比亞嫻熟的敘事技巧——“掇菁擷華，翻陳出新”，令人眼花繚亂。

約翰·克里根精辟扼要地介紹了莎翁這種“創(chuàng)新性借鑒”的敘事技法，讀來更覺眼花繚亂。約翰·克里根是世界上最杰出的莎學(xué)家之一，他只集中探討了少數(shù)幾部莎劇，指出布洛僅僅記錄了所有素材來源中較為明顯的那一半。他帶領(lǐng)我們突破故事原型局限，感受“引用”和“模仿”賦予莎劇的深層質(zhì)感。莎士比亞在斯特拉特福文法學(xué)?？鄬W(xué)時(shí)曾讀過、聽過并記下了各種素材，按照克里根的說法，莎士比亞的原創(chuàng)性很大程度上得益于他對(duì)那些素材所做的煉金術(shù)般的提煉融合。

克里根在引言部分深入探討了“原創(chuàng)性”的內(nèi)涵。實(shí)際上，直到18世紀(jì)后期，評(píng)論家們才萌生“原創(chuàng)性”這一概念。莎士比亞則處在一個(gè)文學(xué)崇尚“因襲舊作”的時(shí)代。修辭學(xué)（文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的創(chuàng)意寫作）認(rèn)可“創(chuàng)作”，但明確指出這種“創(chuàng)作”不過是將既有素材巧妙地糅合在一起。即便如此，莎士比亞仍與同時(shí)期其他作家有所不同：他并非在賣弄自己的文學(xué)學(xué)識(shí)，而是重新演繹了記憶中的敘事模式和對(duì)話片段。正如克里根在書中引述愛默生所言：“人皆引用他人之言?！睕r且，莎士比亞引用的大多數(shù)內(nèi)容（或創(chuàng)造性地有意曲解并引用）若不是經(jīng)莎士比亞改寫或傳播，原本都將湮沒無聞。

書中有一章專門討論了《無事生非》，這是一部由多個(gè)意大利故事拼湊改寫而成的戲劇作品，其根本創(chuàng)新之處在于對(duì)“大量零散”素材的高度回收利用。若想了解這部近乎悲劇性的喜劇作品背后復(fù)雜多樣的故事原型（涉及阿里奧斯托、馬泰奧·班戴洛和路易吉·帕斯夸利哥的作品），必須慢讀細(xì)品，或許還得用搜索引擎查詢相關(guān)資料。經(jīng)過此般折騰，便能深刻感受到這部戲劇在借用素材上是多么獨(dú)具創(chuàng)意。

傳統(tǒng)觀點(diǎn)確信莎士比亞對(duì)希臘悲劇知之甚少。書中分析了《李爾王》與索?？死账箖刹繎騽　抖淼移炙雇酢贰抖淼移炙乖诳屏_諾斯》的關(guān)系，所得結(jié)論顛覆了這一觀點(diǎn)。得益于廣為流傳的希臘語或拉丁語對(duì)照文本，莎士比亞有機(jī)會(huì)接觸這兩部作品。尤其是通過閱讀塞內(nèi)卡根據(jù)希臘語原作改寫的拉丁語版本劇作，莎士比亞得以“順藤摸瓜”感受希臘悲劇經(jīng)典。（本·瓊森曾稱莎士比亞“少諳拉丁，更鮮希臘”，此言失之偏頗，我們應(yīng)對(duì)此持保留態(tài)度。）在《李爾王》中，雙目失明的格洛斯特找人帶自己去多佛爾白崖自盡，殊不知護(hù)送自己的恰是兒子埃德加，這與塞內(nèi)卡的劇作《腓尼基少女》中的一幕如出一轍：安提戈涅領(lǐng)著父親俄狄浦斯尋找附近的絕壁。正如克里根所說：“層出疊見的仿寫劇情與古老戲劇遙相呼應(yīng)?！?/p>

克里根在書中最后一章討論了《暴風(fēng)雨》，據(jù)說這是莎士比亞為數(shù)不多未有特定取材來源的戲劇作品。然而，他發(fā)現(xiàn)《暴風(fēng)雨》不僅在主題上呼應(yīng)了莎翁同時(shí)代的相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)——英國對(duì)弗吉尼亞和百慕大的殖民;在情感上，它也與維吉爾歌頌農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)奧秘的作品《農(nóng)事詩》有異曲同工之處。實(shí)際上，莎士比亞被認(rèn)為最為樸實(shí)的作品恰恰最能夠反映他的文學(xué)造詣。

本書涉及的資料極為廣博，既可謂妙趣橫生，同時(shí)也令人望而生畏。書中閑扯了一些題外話，如英國文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期人們的發(fā)型（這對(duì)理解《無事生非》中的某些玩笑至關(guān)重要）、莎士比亞時(shí)期的農(nóng)業(yè)實(shí)踐（同樣有助于讀懂《暴風(fēng)雨》），以及戲劇演員的舞臺(tái)走姿（演員在舞臺(tái)上是昂首闊步、疾步快走、活蹦亂跳、步伐輕盈，還是像跛足暴君查理三世那樣步履蹣跚、一副不懷好意的模樣）。在《無事生非》中，侍女因裝扮成女主人險(xiǎn)些釀成悲劇。以此為出發(fā)點(diǎn)，克里根在相關(guān)章節(jié)分析了莎士比亞戲劇在服飾描寫上所受的同時(shí)期時(shí)尚書刊的影響。伊麗莎白時(shí)代的英國仍實(shí)行“禁奢法”，嚴(yán)格限制穿戴華服美飾?！皯騽⊙輪T們卻公然蔑視這些規(guī)矩?！笨死锔拇朔u(píng)論說明戲服是戲劇的基本要素之一。看著有人明目張膽地亂穿一氣該多令人興奮??！

書中四個(gè)主要章節(jié)的內(nèi)容最初以講座的形式呈現(xiàn)，顯然，克里根希望聽眾們做到聚精會(huì)神。他堅(jiān)信自己可以直接使用“輪流對(duì)白的”和“腸占卜”這類生僻詞匯而不必加以解釋;他還相信讀者熟知?dú)W里庇得斯和維吉爾，且對(duì)莎劇的諸多劇情細(xì)節(jié)諳熟于心。本書包含大量尾注，如有興趣，讀者可以在結(jié)尾附錄部分查閱莎士比亞戲劇的相關(guān)知識(shí)典故。不過，認(rèn)為讀者擁有對(duì)文學(xué)的好奇心，這讓人沉迷其中。畢竟，莎士比亞戲劇創(chuàng)作之復(fù)雜精彩絕倫又獨(dú)具匠心，誰愿意（為了方便理解而）去繁就簡呢？? ? ? ? □

（譯者為“《英語世界》杯”翻譯大賽獲獎(jiǎng)?wù)撸?/p>

1 tease out（將糾纏在一起的東西）整理;得出。? 2 alchemical煉金術(shù)的;煉丹術(shù)的。此處用來形容莎士比亞提煉他人素材為自己所用。? 3 pilfer一點(diǎn)兒一點(diǎn)兒地偷竊。

4在莎士比亞的悲劇《李爾王》之前，曾有過一部名不見經(jīng)傳的劇作《李爾王與三個(gè)女兒的真實(shí)編年史》（The True Chronicle History of King Leir， and His Three Daughters， Gonorill， Ragan， and Cordella），出版于1605年，作者不明。這部戲劇結(jié)局圓滿，李爾在科迪莉亞的幫助下恢復(fù)了皇權(quán)。? 5奧賽羅受小人伊阿古讒陷蠱惑，在新婚的床上，親手掐死了忠貞而單純的妻子苔絲狄蒙娜。當(dāng)伊阿古的妻子揭穿這一謊言與騙局的時(shí)候，奧賽羅如夢初醒，拔劍自刎。? 6英國當(dāng)代著名的莎士比亞、英詩研究專家與文學(xué)批評(píng)家，現(xiàn)為英國劍橋大學(xué)圣約翰學(xué)院英語教授。? 7 texture（藝術(shù)作品等的）神韻;質(zhì)感。? 8 ruminate尋味;反復(fù)思考。

9 lodge銘記;留存。? 10拉爾夫·沃爾多·愛默生（1803—1882），美國散文作家、思想家、詩人。他是確立美國文化精神的代表人物。美國前總統(tǒng)林肯稱他為“美國的孔子”“美國文明之父”。? 11 piece拼合;拼裝。? 12 （1474—1533），意大利文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期詩人，代表作是長篇傳奇敘事詩《瘋狂的羅蘭》（Orlando Furioso）。? 13 （1480—1562），意大利文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期杰出的小說家。他從1505年到晚年總共寫了短篇小說214篇，對(duì)意大利和歐洲文學(xué)產(chǎn)生了很大影響。? 14 （1536—1576），威尼斯士兵兼作家，其戲劇作品《伊利·費(fèi)代勒》（Il Fedele）經(jīng)英國劇作家安東尼·曼迪（Anthony Munday）改編成《費(fèi)代勒和福爾圖尼奧》（Fidele and Fortunio）。

15 next to（用于否定詞前）幾乎;差不多。? 16指《俄狄浦斯王》（Oedipus Rex，或Oedipus the King）和《俄狄浦斯在科羅諾斯》（Oedipus at Colonus）。? 17 take something with a pinch of salt 對(duì)……半信半疑;對(duì)……有所懷疑。? 18李爾王的大臣格洛斯特伯爵輕信庶子埃德蒙的讒言，將長子埃德加放逐他鄉(xiāng)。后來他由于維護(hù)李爾王，被挖去雙目，流落荒原。在野外流浪時(shí)他遇到淪為乞丐、裝瘋賣傻的長子埃德加，由他攙扶前行，卻不知攙扶他的就是被自己驅(qū)逐的兒子。

19 precipice懸崖;峭壁。? 20 antiquity古代;古時(shí)（尤指古埃及、古希臘、古羅馬時(shí)期）。? 21弗吉尼亞是英國在北美大陸上設(shè)立的第一個(gè)殖民地，也是其在海外建立的第一個(gè)殖民地，于1607年由弗吉尼亞公司首建，于1624年升格為英國皇家殖民地。1609年，海盜冒險(xiǎn)家喬治·薩莫爾斯爵士（Sir George Somers）率領(lǐng)船隊(duì)前往弗吉尼亞，目的是救濟(jì)已在兩年前殖民的詹姆斯敦（Jamestown）殖民地，船艦在百慕大海域遭遇風(fēng)暴失事，生還者上島避難滯留，從而創(chuàng)建了百慕大殖民地。莎士比亞的劇作《暴風(fēng)雨》可能受威廉·斯特雷奇（William Strachey）對(duì)這次海難的記述影響。? 22 cull挑選;采集。? 23 literary有典型文學(xué)作品特征的;精通文學(xué)的。? 24 ditto（尤用于序列中）同上，同前。? 25 jet快速移動(dòng)。? 26 jig精力充沛地跳舞（或走動(dòng)）;（尤指）蹦跳。? 27 trip輕快地走（或跑、跳舞）。

28伊麗莎白時(shí)代通過的禁奢令中，對(duì)王室成員、有騎士或以上頭銜者、小農(nóng)、打工者和仆從等各個(gè)階層所能穿著的服飾顏色、布料類型、價(jià)格，都給出了明確的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，如“王室可以穿黃色布料和紫色絲綢，平民則只能買每碼2先令以下的布料”。sumptuary（法令等）取締揮霍浪費(fèi)的。? 29 flagrantly明目張膽地。? 30克里根于2016年擔(dān)任“牛津威爾斯莎士比亞講座系列（Oxford Wells Shakespeare Lectures）”主講人。《莎士比亞的原創(chuàng)性》的四大章節(jié)即根據(jù)講座內(nèi)容改編而成。

31歐里庇得斯（公元前480—前406），古希臘著名悲劇大師，與埃斯庫羅斯和索福克勒斯并稱為希臘三大悲劇大師。? 32維吉爾（公元前70—前19），奧古斯都時(shí)代的古羅馬詩人，其主要作品包括《牧歌集》《農(nóng)事詩》和《埃涅阿斯紀(jì)》。? 33 bristle with充滿，布滿。? 34 compendium（尤指書中某題材事實(shí)、圖畫及照片的）匯編。