張?zhí)炱? 龍喜帶
【摘要】?原發(fā)性肝細胞癌(HCC)是全球最常見的惡性腫瘤之一。乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)感染是誘發(fā)HCC的重要因素,HBV誘發(fā)的HCC與乙型肝炎病毒X(HBx)基因及其編碼蛋白密切相關(guān),其核心機制為HBV感染肝細胞時將HBx整合入宿主細胞核所導致的肝細胞基因組結(jié)構(gòu)變異,并誘導肝細胞癌變。該綜述從HCC發(fā)生及發(fā)展等過程來探討HBx在HBV相關(guān)性HCC中的分子機制。
【關(guān)鍵詞】?肝細胞癌;乙型肝炎病毒;乙型肝炎病毒X基因
中圖分類號:R735.7?文獻標志碼:A?DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1003-1383.2019.03.001
【Abstract】 ??Primary hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors in the world.Hepatitis B virus(HBV) infection plays a major role in inducing HCC.HBV-induced HCC is closely related to hepatitis B virus X (HBx) gene and its encoded protein.The central mechanism is the integration of HBx gene into the host cell nucleus when HBV infects liver cells,which results in cellular genomic structural variation and carcinogenesis of liver cells.This review discusses the molecular mechanism of HBx in HBV-related HCC from the process of occurrence and progression of HCC.
【Key words】?HCC;HBV;HBx gene
原發(fā)性肝細胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)是世界范圍內(nèi)最常見的惡性腫瘤之一,其發(fā)病率居所有癌癥的第5位,病死率居所有癌癥的第2位。在已知的病因中,乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus,HBV)慢性感染約占50%[1]。盡管HBV相關(guān)性HCC的發(fā)病機制尚未完全闡明,但有證據(jù)表明乙型肝炎病毒X基因(hepatitis B virus X,HBx)及其編碼蛋白在HCC的發(fā)生發(fā)展中發(fā)揮重要作用[2],我們將就HBx在HBV相關(guān)性HCC演進中的作用及相關(guān)機制進行綜述。
1?HBx基因與表達
HBV基因組是部分環(huán)狀雙鏈DNA,鏈長約3200個堿基,含四個開放閱讀框(Open reading frame,ORF),即S、C、P和X[3]。HBx是HBV的四個部分重疊的ORF中最小的基因,包含455個核苷酸,位于HBV基因組的第1374~1838位核苷酸,所編碼的產(chǎn)物HBx蛋白是由154個氨基酸組成,分子量約為17 kDa的多功能非結(jié)構(gòu)蛋白[3~4]。由于人類基因組中未能顯示與該已知蛋白質(zhì)的同源性氨基酸序列,故命名為X(即“未知”)蛋白。
2?HBx與HCC發(fā)生、發(fā)展的關(guān)系
HBx在嗜肝病毒的哺乳動物肝細胞中呈現(xiàn)高度保守,通常在慢性HBV攜帶者的肝細胞中易于發(fā)現(xiàn)[5]。近年來的研究表明:HBx在HBV相關(guān)性HCC的發(fā)生發(fā)展中扮演重要角色。在HBV陽性肝細胞中,HBx主要定位于細胞核,HBx蛋白是HBV cccDNA轉(zhuǎn)錄所必需的并通過多種途徑增強HBV復制[6]。除外HBx主要作為轉(zhuǎn)錄激活因子在HCC發(fā)展中發(fā)揮作用,還通過作用于p53、TNF、轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子等調(diào)節(jié)細胞凋亡[7];HBx可干擾細胞周期進程,阻斷G1/S轉(zhuǎn)換,導致細胞異常死亡,并伴隨著嚴重的脂肪蓄積和受損的糖原儲存[8]。此外,HBx通過表觀遺傳學修飾、基因突變、基因損傷與修復、自噬等影響HCC的發(fā)生發(fā)展。HBx的這些作用可能導致肝細胞喪失對自身生物學行為的調(diào)控,進而發(fā)生惡性轉(zhuǎn)化和形成HCC。
3?HBx誘導HCC的分子機制
3.1?HBx和非編碼RNA
分子生物學中基因調(diào)控主要集中在中心法則上。然而,約98%的人類基因組被轉(zhuǎn)錄成非編碼RNA(ncRNA)[9]。HBx和ncRNA之間的相互作用在HCC發(fā)展中作用顯著。
3.1.1?HBx和miRNA
微小RNA(Micro RNA,miRNA)是長20~25個核苷酸的具有基因調(diào)控功能的單鏈非編碼RNA[9]。多種miRNA在HBV相關(guān)性HCC發(fā)生發(fā)展中起重要作用,其中HBx通過激活NF-κB/EGR1信號通路,下調(diào)miR-3928v以及抑癌基因VDAC3,從而加速HCC的進展[10]。此外,miRNA-15b以巖藻糖基轉(zhuǎn)移酶2和癌癥相關(guān)糖類抗原Globo-H為靶標來抑制肝癌細胞的增殖,而HBx通過抑制miRNA-15b的表達而對HCC起到促進作用[11]。
3.1.2?HBx和lncRNA
長鏈非編碼RNA(Long non-coding RNA,lncRNA)是長度大于200個核苷酸的非編碼RNA,具有調(diào)節(jié)染色體修復、轉(zhuǎn)錄后修飾及基因組印跡等功能[9]。lncRNA DREH在體內(nèi)外起到抑制細胞增殖和遷移的作用,而HBx能夠下調(diào)DREH的表達,從而促進體內(nèi)外HCC細胞的增殖[12]。另外,在HCC中l(wèi)ncRNA MALAT1的表達水平與HBx呈正相關(guān),進一步研究證實,HBx通過上調(diào)MALAT1的表達而促進體內(nèi)外肝癌細胞的侵襲和遷移[13]。
3.2?HBx和表觀遺傳學修飾
表觀遺傳學(epigenomics)修飾是指非基因序列改變所致基因表達水平變化,如DNA甲基化、組蛋白修飾、染色質(zhì)構(gòu)象變化等[14]。DNA甲基化是HCC發(fā)展過程中早期和普遍存在的事件。DNA甲基化指的是通過甲基轉(zhuǎn)移酶(DNMT)在CpG二核苷酸的胞嘧啶上接受甲基形成5-甲基胞嘧啶的過程。DNA甲基化通過構(gòu)象改變影響DNA與蛋白質(zhì)之間的相互作用[15]。HBx通過直接抑制DNMT啟動子誘導宿主基因中的CpG島異常甲基化而參與腫瘤的發(fā)生[16]。此外,HBx可以通過反式激活上調(diào)DNMT3A和DNMT3B的表達[15]。最近有研究指出,在HBV相關(guān)性HCC中,HBx通過組蛋白乙?;笵elta-like 3(DLL3)沉默,從而影響細胞凋亡進程[17]。
3.3?HBx及相關(guān)信號通路
在肝細胞內(nèi),HBx低表達時主要分布在細胞核,高表達時多聚集在胞漿,HBx不具有直接結(jié)合DNA的能力,但可通過蛋白間相互作用發(fā)揮其反式轉(zhuǎn)錄活性[18]。
3.3.1?HBx和JAK-STAT信號通路
JAK-STAT信號通路是由細胞因子刺激的信號轉(zhuǎn)導通路,STAT為JAK的底物。已經(jīng)證實,STAT3在HBV相關(guān)性HCC中高表達,目前認為HBx激活JAK-STAT通路的機制主要有:HBx與JAK1-酪氨酸激酶相互作用;HBx二聚化誘導的JAK交叉磷酸化和自激活;HBx激活Src激酶等[19~20]。另外有學者指出HBx通過與線粒體的關(guān)聯(lián)誘導氧化應(yīng)激并激活STAT3[21],進一步研究表明HBx通過激活STAT3促進肝細胞的上皮-間質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)化[22]。
3.3.2?HBx與Notch信號通路
Notch是跨膜受體,其受體與鄰近細胞中的配體相互作用后被激活[23]。研究表明HBx促進HCC中的miR-3188活化而激活HBx-miR-3188-ZHX2-Notch1信號通路,進而促進肝癌細胞的增殖和遷移[24]。Yang等[25]報道缺氧誘導因子-1α參與HCC中Notch的上調(diào)并與HBx共同激活Notch信號通路,同時Notch3的表達增加與HCC的血管轉(zhuǎn)移密切相關(guān)。此外,Notch3在轉(zhuǎn)錄后水平調(diào)節(jié)p53,并與NF-κB、Wnt協(xié)同作用,誘導HCC的發(fā)生[26~27]。
3.3.3?HBx與凋亡信號通路
HBx本身不激活凋亡信號通路,但體內(nèi)外研究證實:HBx誘導內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激CREBH信號通路,該信號通路調(diào)節(jié)AP-1,AP-1通過結(jié)合PPP2R5C啟動子反式激活PPP2R5C,PPP2R5C的表達產(chǎn)物B56γ誘導細胞周期停滯和細胞凋亡[3]。體外研究發(fā)現(xiàn):HBx抑制胰島素樣生長因子結(jié)合蛋白1的分泌,使毒胡蘿卜素和星形孢菌素誘導的caspase-3/7活性降低,最終抑制肝癌細胞凋亡[28]。HBx通過多種機制調(diào)控細胞凋亡,包括使Fas/FasL、Bax/Bcl-2等信號通路功能失調(diào),caspase家族表達水平的調(diào)節(jié)等[29~30]。有趣的是,在不同的研究中或不同細胞系中,HBx通過不同的凋亡通路分別對細胞凋亡起到促進和抑制作用,而這些機制多與線粒體關(guān)聯(lián),這也印證了內(nèi)源性細胞色素C從線粒體釋放的調(diào)節(jié)是細胞凋亡分子機理研究的關(guān)鍵問題。
3.4?HBx基因突變
特定基因的遺傳改變是HCC進展中的關(guān)鍵事件,已經(jīng)證實HCC患者的血清和肝組織中存在HBx的天然變異?,F(xiàn)有研究報道最多的是HBx截短造成的缺失突變。HCC組織中HBx的C末端缺失較癌旁組織頻發(fā),與全長HBx相比,HBx缺失突變表現(xiàn)出許多不同特性:HBx缺失60AA后,HBx的致癌作用降低80%~90%;HBx抑制抑癌基因p53的表達,而N端和C端截短的HBx(61~124AA)下調(diào)p53表達的作用更強[31]。此外,HBx基因中的某些點突變,特別是K130M和V131I雙突變導致HCC發(fā)生的風險增加4~5倍[32]。近年來許多研究證明了HBx基因突變通過影響蛋白質(zhì)之間相互作用、轉(zhuǎn)錄反式激活、DNA修復、細胞信號傳導等途徑調(diào)控著HCC的細胞增殖、細胞凋亡、細胞周期和遷移等生物學進程。
3.5?HBx和基因修復
DNA修復系統(tǒng)可識別和修復損傷的DNA,對維持基因組完整性至關(guān)重要。在HCC細胞中,HBx通過影響DNA損傷相關(guān)基因的表達譜抑制DNA合成,從而誘導核酸代謝異常導致基因組不穩(wěn)定,進一步研究發(fā)現(xiàn)HBx通過促使H2AX磷酸化誘導DNA損傷,與此同時,HBx誘導G2/M期阻滯而阻止基因修復,由DNA損傷激活的G2/M檢查點在真核生物基因損傷修復中具有重要作用,DNA損傷時可以防止有絲分裂,為基因修復提供機會[33~34]。PARP1是DNA修復中的關(guān)鍵酶,內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)中的HBx通過調(diào)控eIF2α/ATF4途徑抑制PARP1的表達并進而抑制基因修復和細胞凋亡[35]。此外,HBx還可以作用于胸腺嘧啶DNA糖基化酶[36]、轉(zhuǎn)錄因子TFIIH[37]等影響基因修復過程。
3.6?HBx和自噬
自噬是細胞將胞內(nèi)蛋白、細胞器等物質(zhì)遞送至溶酶體降解并自我更新的過程。細胞自噬與腫瘤的關(guān)系尚未完全闡明。一方面,在HCC中HBx通過各種機制誘導細胞自噬及自噬體的形成:研究表明HBx和高遷移率族蛋白盒1之間的相互作用可以促進HCC自噬[38];Zhang等[39]報道HBx通過激活死亡相關(guān)蛋白激酶誘導自噬;Zhong等[40]認為JNK信號通路對HBx誘導的自噬至關(guān)重要。另一方面,HBV存活和復制需要自噬過程的參與,自噬的降解過程需要成熟溶酶體的參與,而HBx通過抑制溶酶體酸化阻礙溶酶體成熟,導致未成熟的溶酶體積聚并降低溶酶體的降解能力,最終抑制自噬降解[41]。目前而言,自噬在HCC進展過程中具有雙重作用,而在靶向治療過程中也被認為是一把雙刃劍[42]。
4?小結(jié)與展望
HBV相關(guān)性HCC的發(fā)生發(fā)展一直被視為多因素過程,包括很多直接或間接可以協(xié)同作用的機制。HBx誘發(fā)HCC的確切機制仍不明朗,仍有待深入研究和闡明。當前的研究進展提示我們,從分子生物學層面闡明HBx基因和HBx蛋白可以進一步確切了解HBx在HCC中的作用,并為預(yù)防HBV相關(guān)性HCC和臨床治療HCC的新型治療策略提供重要依據(jù)。
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(收稿日期:2018-12-18?修回日期:2019-01-19)
(編輯:潘明志)