張永欣 綜述 黃 河 審校
雖然外科技術(shù)水平不斷提高,生物治療、基因治療等綜合治療手段日益豐富,惡性腫瘤依然嚴(yán)重威脅人類(lèi)的生命健康。針對(duì)惡性腫瘤發(fā)生發(fā)展過(guò)程中分子機(jī)制的研究,細(xì)胞凋亡、細(xì)胞侵襲轉(zhuǎn)移、腫瘤免疫等方面進(jìn)行靶向分子檢測(cè),可以發(fā)現(xiàn)新的腫瘤標(biāo)志物,為臨床早期發(fā)現(xiàn)腫瘤、預(yù)測(cè)預(yù)后、監(jiān)視轉(zhuǎn)移和復(fù)發(fā)提供理論依據(jù),從而完善腫瘤療法,提高腫瘤患者的生存時(shí)間和生活質(zhì)量。
Galectin-9在多種惡性腫瘤中表達(dá),與惡性腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展相關(guān)。Galectin-9屬于串聯(lián)重復(fù)的半乳糖凝集素,包含兩個(gè)同源的互補(bǔ)決定簇(Complementarity-determining regions,CDR)。根據(jù)不同的肽鏈長(zhǎng)度分為三型,長(zhǎng)鏈Galectin-9L,由58個(gè)氨基酸構(gòu)成,中鏈Galectin-9M,由26個(gè)氨基酸構(gòu)成,短鏈Galectin-9S,由14個(gè)氨基酸構(gòu)成[1]。Galectin-9的基因位于人類(lèi)染色體17q11.1,含有11個(gè)外顯子,轉(zhuǎn)錄區(qū)長(zhǎng)度約1.7 kb,編碼34~39 kDa的蛋白。Galectin-9的生物學(xué)功能主要包括趨化嗜酸性粒細(xì)胞[2],在不同生理和病理狀況下的免疫調(diào)節(jié)[3-4],調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞聚集與黏附,參與多種腫瘤細(xì)胞凋亡、侵襲轉(zhuǎn)移等生物學(xué)行為的調(diào)控。
Galectin-9在多種惡性腫瘤中呈低表達(dá),與臨床分期、轉(zhuǎn)移和預(yù)后相關(guān)。Choi等分析發(fā)現(xiàn)Galectin-9表達(dá)陽(yáng)性組胃癌患者相較于陰性組死亡率顯著降低,Galectin-9陽(yáng)性表達(dá)表現(xiàn)出改善胃癌患者預(yù)后的趨勢(shì)[5]。Yang等發(fā)現(xiàn)相比正常或鄰近組織,Galectin-9基因表達(dá)在腫瘤組織中明顯降低,胃癌患者的臨床分期、病理分期、分化程度、淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移及生存率均與Galectin-9表達(dá)相關(guān)[6]。Jiang等研究表明高表達(dá)的Galectin-9和低表達(dá)的Tim-3與胃癌患者長(zhǎng)期生存率顯著相關(guān),Galectin-9及Tim-3的表達(dá)可能是潛在的胃癌患者的獨(dú)立預(yù)后因素[7]。Wang等發(fā)現(xiàn)在結(jié)腸癌組織中Galectin-9表達(dá)低于對(duì)應(yīng)的癌旁組織,高表達(dá)的Galectin-9水平與腫瘤患者TNM早期分期、無(wú)淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移、良好的組織分化和更長(zhǎng)的生存時(shí)間相關(guān)[8]。Punt等發(fā)現(xiàn)表達(dá)Galectin-9的宮頸癌患者表現(xiàn)出了較高的生存改善,Galectin-9可能代表了一種有益的影響[9]。Schulkens等表示Galectin-1和Galectin-9 Δ5是早期非小細(xì)胞肺癌的潛在預(yù)后標(biāo)志物,使用Kaplan-Meier生存分析顯示,Galectin-9 Δ5表達(dá)在中位數(shù)以下的患者生存期明顯縮短[10]。上述研究表明Galectin-9能夠判斷多種惡性腫瘤患者預(yù)后,有希望作為新的腫瘤標(biāo)志物,成為潛在治療靶點(diǎn)。
Galectin-9在不同類(lèi)型T細(xì)胞系,如MOLT-4人急性淋巴母細(xì)胞白血病細(xì)胞系,Jurkat急性T細(xì)胞白血病細(xì)胞系中以時(shí)間和劑量依賴(lài)性誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡,發(fā)揮作用依靠其半乳糖苷結(jié)構(gòu),Ca2+-鈣蛋白酶-Caspase-1信號(hào)通路可能參與其作用機(jī)制[11-12]。在多發(fā)性骨髓瘤細(xì)胞中Galectin-9可以通過(guò)內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激途徑,激活JNK與p38 MAP蛋白激酶通路從而激活Caspaes-8,引發(fā)Caspaes-9和Caspaes-3的級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng)誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡,發(fā)揮抗多發(fā)性骨髓瘤細(xì)胞增殖的作用[13]。對(duì)于慢性髓細(xì)胞白血病細(xì)胞凋亡,Galectin-9涉及內(nèi)在的細(xì)胞凋亡途徑,誘導(dǎo)ATF3(細(xì)胞死亡的重要介質(zhì))表達(dá),并不依賴(lài)于細(xì)胞死亡受體(例如Bcl-2家族)[14]。Galectin-9能夠誘導(dǎo)黑色素瘤細(xì)胞凋亡,但具體的細(xì)胞表面受體并不明確[15]。
Tim-3是腫瘤免疫系統(tǒng)中一種重要的免疫調(diào)節(jié)分子。胃癌患者的單核細(xì)胞上的Tim-3水平顯著上調(diào),Galectin-9/Tim-3信號(hào)能顯著刺激單核細(xì)胞分泌IL-6、IL-8和IL-10,表明Galectin-9/Tim-3信號(hào)能夠通過(guò)影響單核細(xì)胞進(jìn)而調(diào)節(jié)胃癌進(jìn)展[16]。Galectin-9在胃癌細(xì)胞系中能夠通過(guò)下調(diào)Bcl-2蛋白表達(dá),上調(diào)Bax蛋白、Caspaes-3蛋白表達(dá)促進(jìn)胃癌細(xì)胞凋亡,MGC-803細(xì)胞中并未觀察到Galectin-9和Tim-3的直接作用,提示Galectin-9可能不是通過(guò)Galectin-9/Tim-3途徑發(fā)揮作用[6]。
Takano等發(fā)現(xiàn)在胃癌細(xì)胞中Galectin-9能夠上調(diào)CCK18(Caspase-cleaved keratin 18)的表達(dá)水平,提示Galectin-9可以誘導(dǎo)胃癌細(xì)胞凋亡。Galectin-9還可以降低血管內(nèi)皮生長(zhǎng)因子受體-3(VEGFR-3)和胰島素樣生長(zhǎng)因子-1受體(IGF-1R)的磷酸化,調(diào)節(jié)RTK通路和血管生成相關(guān)的分子,從而抑制人胃癌細(xì)胞的增殖[17]。Kobayashi等在膽管癌細(xì)胞中發(fā)現(xiàn)類(lèi)似的機(jī)制,Galectin-9可以上調(diào)CCK18表達(dá),通過(guò)Caspase介導(dǎo)的內(nèi)在凋亡通路誘導(dǎo)膽管癌細(xì)胞凋亡,也觀察到Galectin-9能夠減少EGFR、IGF-1R和FGFR3的磷酸化[18]。Tadokoro等研究表明Galectin-9能夠上調(diào)CCK18和p53表達(dá)水平誘導(dǎo)膽囊癌細(xì)胞凋亡[19],Galectin-9能夠上調(diào)CCK18、Caspase-3和Caspase-7,誘導(dǎo)胰腺癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移細(xì)胞的凋亡[20]。Akashi等發(fā)現(xiàn)Galectin-9能夠增加CCK18的表達(dá),活化Caspase-3和Caspase-9從而誘導(dǎo)食管癌細(xì)胞凋亡[21]。Galectin-9可以誘導(dǎo)多種細(xì)胞系在體外的凋亡,上述研究表明細(xì)胞凋亡的具體機(jī)制取決于細(xì)胞系,目前實(shí)驗(yàn)并沒(méi)有明確Galectin-9誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡的共同途徑[22-23]。
Galectin-9的表達(dá)可以調(diào)節(jié)內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的活化,影響新血管的生成。IFN-γ可以誘導(dǎo)Galectin-9在血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的表達(dá),其作用機(jī)制可能與HDAC3相關(guān),HDAC3通過(guò)PI3K/IRF3信號(hào)通路調(diào)節(jié)Galectin-9在內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的表達(dá)[24-25]。Takano等發(fā)現(xiàn)Galectin-9可以降低VEGFR-3和IGF-1R的磷酸化,調(diào)節(jié)RTK通路和血管生成相關(guān)的分子,從而抑制胃癌細(xì)胞的增殖、轉(zhuǎn)移[17]。Zhang等研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在結(jié)腸癌細(xì)胞LoVo中Galectin-9L表達(dá)能夠下調(diào)E-選擇素水平,而Galectin-9M和Galectin-9S上調(diào)E-選擇素水平,三種不同亞型通過(guò)不同方式調(diào)節(jié)E-選擇素水平,介導(dǎo)LoVo細(xì)胞與內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的體外黏附[26]。Galectin-9能夠在血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞中表達(dá),調(diào)節(jié)腫瘤血管生成相關(guān)因子,介導(dǎo)腫瘤細(xì)胞與內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的黏附,然而Galectin-9在內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞及血管生成中具體的作用機(jī)制尚未清楚,需要進(jìn)一步研究。
Galectin-9可以誘導(dǎo)黑色素瘤細(xì)胞的聚集,Galectin-9 mRNA與蛋白高表達(dá)促使黑色素瘤細(xì)胞集落形成。相較于良性黑色素痣中高表達(dá)的Galectin-9蛋白,黑色素瘤細(xì)胞中呈現(xiàn)低表達(dá),而轉(zhuǎn)移灶中Galectin-9蛋白的下調(diào)更為明顯。高表達(dá)的Galectin-9與黑色素瘤疾病進(jìn)程呈負(fù)相關(guān),黑色素瘤中高水平表達(dá)的Galectin-9可能提示疾病更好的預(yù)后[27]。Galectin-9參與乳腺癌MCF7細(xì)胞的聚集,降低MCF7細(xì)胞與細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)的黏附。低表達(dá)的Galectin-9蛋白水平與乳腺癌患者高轉(zhuǎn)移風(fēng)險(xiǎn)相關(guān),提示Galectin-9可能是乳腺癌患者轉(zhuǎn)移潛能的預(yù)后因素[28]。
Cho等發(fā)現(xiàn)PPARγ可以通過(guò)直接結(jié)合Galectin-9 DNA的啟動(dòng)子區(qū)域促進(jìn)Galectin-9轉(zhuǎn)錄,上調(diào)Galectin-9表達(dá)水平,發(fā)揮抗腫瘤作用。PPARγ與Galectin-9表達(dá)增強(qiáng)能夠增加EMT相關(guān)因子E鈣黏蛋白表達(dá),降低N-鈣黏蛋白、纖連蛋白、Snail、Twist和Slug水平,從而抑制胃癌細(xì)胞的侵襲與轉(zhuǎn)移,提示PPARγ和Galectin-9可能是胃癌的潛在治療靶點(diǎn)[29]。Nobumoto等實(shí)驗(yàn)證明Galectin-9可以通過(guò)抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞上黏附分子整合素、CD44和血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞以及細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)的配體的結(jié)合來(lái)抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的附著和侵襲,Galectin-9可以抑制結(jié)腸癌細(xì)胞Colon26的肺轉(zhuǎn)移。因此,Galectin-9可能通過(guò)影響EMT相關(guān)因子,也可能通過(guò)調(diào)控細(xì)胞表面跨膜蛋白和黏附分子發(fā)揮其抑制胃腸道腫瘤侵襲轉(zhuǎn)移的作用[30]。
惡性腫瘤的治療方法由傳統(tǒng)的手術(shù)治療、化學(xué)治療、放射治療逐漸向免疫治療轉(zhuǎn)變,免疫療法通過(guò)增強(qiáng)機(jī)體抗腫瘤免疫能力抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的生長(zhǎng)。然而Galectin-9的免疫調(diào)節(jié)作用十分復(fù)雜。Galectin-9可以誘導(dǎo)趨化嗜酸性粒細(xì)胞,而嗜酸性粒細(xì)胞可以做為腫瘤預(yù)后良好的標(biāo)志物[31]。Galectin-9能夠誘導(dǎo)Th17細(xì)胞分化、Th1細(xì)胞凋亡、Th2細(xì)胞遷移發(fā)揮免疫抑制活性。Galectin-9具有免疫抑制功能,然而Galectin-9低表達(dá)與患者預(yù)后不良相關(guān),可能在腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展過(guò)程中Galectin-9就已經(jīng)缺失,多種免疫逃避模式形成促使腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移[32]。
另一方面,Galectin-9在抗腫瘤免疫中發(fā)揮重要作用[33],Galectin-9/TIM-3信號(hào)通路能夠?qū)箰盒阅[瘤細(xì)胞對(duì)于免疫療法的耐藥機(jī)制,有望做為髓系白血病檢查點(diǎn)阻斷治療的靶點(diǎn)[34-35]。在荷瘤小鼠中Galectin-9能夠通過(guò)與T細(xì)胞免疫球蛋白和黏蛋白域(TIM-3)反應(yīng)增加(TIM)-3+樹(shù)突狀細(xì)胞與CD8+細(xì)胞毒性T細(xì)胞,從而增強(qiáng)抗腫瘤免疫[36]。Kadowaki等采用Lewis肺癌細(xì)胞小鼠模型進(jìn)行研究表明,Galectin-9能夠誘導(dǎo)巨噬細(xì)胞分化成漿細(xì)胞樣樹(shù)突狀巨噬細(xì)胞,從而增強(qiáng)NK細(xì)胞的活化,延長(zhǎng)荷瘤小鼠的存活時(shí)間[37]。Clayton和Nobumoto等發(fā)現(xiàn)肉瘤、黑色素瘤模型中Galectin-9強(qiáng)化CD8+細(xì)胞毒性T細(xì)胞和NK細(xì)胞,發(fā)揮其抗腫瘤免疫活性[38-40]。Wang等人發(fā)現(xiàn)在結(jié)腸癌組織中Galectin-9通過(guò)Rho/ROCK1信號(hào)通路調(diào)節(jié)F-肌動(dòng)蛋白極化從而增強(qiáng)NK細(xì)胞的遷移能力,Galectin-9可能成為結(jié)腸癌免疫治療的新靶點(diǎn)[8]。
Galectin-9在胃癌、膽管癌、膽囊癌、胰腺癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移細(xì)胞中可以改變miRNA表達(dá)譜,表明miRNA可能參與Galectin-9的抗腫瘤作用機(jī)制[17-20]。Yang等研究表明高表達(dá)的Galectin-9和miR-455-5p與結(jié)腸癌HT29細(xì)胞增殖、凋亡相關(guān),miR-455-5p能夠直接作用于Galectin-9的3′-非翻譯區(qū)降低其表達(dá)[41]。Fujita發(fā)現(xiàn)Galectin-9能夠通過(guò)miR-1246-DYRK1A-caspase-9軸誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡從而抑制肝癌細(xì)胞的生長(zhǎng)[42]。
Galectin-9在多種惡性腫瘤組織表現(xiàn)出抑癌作用,且Galectin-9高表達(dá)的患者預(yù)后更好。Galectin-9能夠通過(guò)誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡、抑制細(xì)胞侵襲和轉(zhuǎn)移、參與NK細(xì)胞的抗腫瘤活性等多種方式發(fā)揮抗腫瘤作用,其抗腫瘤作用依賴(lài)其β-半乳糖苷結(jié)構(gòu)。Galectin-9在不同細(xì)胞系中誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制不同,一些蛋白如CCK18、ATF3、VEGFR-3、IGF-1R參與作用,發(fā)現(xiàn)Ca2+-鈣蛋白酶-Caspase-1、JNK-p38 MAP蛋白激酶-Caspase-8等通路,miRNA可能參與調(diào)節(jié)。Galectin-9存在于細(xì)胞的不同部位,通過(guò)影響?zhàn)じ椒肿雍虴MT相關(guān)因子可以抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的侵襲轉(zhuǎn)移。Galectin-9有望做為靶點(diǎn)開(kāi)發(fā)新藥治療惡性腫瘤,針對(duì)不同的腫瘤需要進(jìn)行更精準(zhǔn)的機(jī)制研究,完善相關(guān)信號(hào)通路信息,為臨床治療惡性腫瘤提供更多證據(jù),改善腫瘤患者的預(yù)后。
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