A Comparison Between Chinese and AmericanCultural Factors in Body Language

【Abstract】 Intentionally or unintentionally， body language can be put into practice separately or in combination with utterance， paralanguage or other nonverbal communicative approaches. Because of cultural differences， it is a hard job to identify subtle body language in communication. This paper demonstrates the significance of knowing nonverbal communication by making a comparison of body language between China and America from the perspective of different cultural values.

【Key words】body language； nonverbal communication； cultural values

1. Introduction

Verbal expressions such as written and spoken language is only one of the primary modes through which we communicate. Nonverbal expression is the other primary one. Effective communication cross cultures requires more than understanding verbal language， which involves a basic knowledge of the acceptable nonverbal ways of communication within a culture.

Body language （kinesics）， as a category of nonverbal behavior， refers to gestures， facial expressions， eye contact， body positions， body movements， touch behavior， space and forms of greeting and their relation to communication. Body language communicates as effectively as words， maybe even more effectively. The social anthropologists Edward T. Hall claims 60 percent of all our communication is nonverbal （Axtell， 1991）. We use body language daily， almost instinctively， from beckoning to a waiter， or punctuating a business presentation with visual signals to airport ground attendants guiding an airline pilot into the jetway or a parent using a whole dictionary of body language to teach a child.

As the global village continues to shrink and cultures collide， it is essential for all of us to become more sensitive， more aware， and more observant to the myriad motions， gestures， and body language that surround us each day. And as many of us cross over cultural borders， it would be fitting for us to respect， learn， and understand more about the effective， yet powerful “silent language” of body language. Without body language， our world would be static and colorless. In that case， how can we possibly communicate with one another without body language？We may not have time to hear a language， but taking time to learn the “signals” is a powerful communicator （Imai， 1996）.

Therefore， a variety of different cultural values between China and America are to be explored to illustrate different body languages in these two cultures for the purpose of successful and effective communication.endprint

2. Cultural types and values in body language

Each culture has developed as the result of influences from a number of different philosophies and religions， so each society has inherited different， sometimes conflicting values. We usually fail to recognize these contradictions when making decisions about how to behave， and always following our common sense without realizing the cultural iceberg–basic values lying hidden from our view （Davis， 2001）.

2.1 Collectivism vs Individualism

One of the most basic value differences to be focused on in cross–cultural communication is Collectivism vs Individualism. American society cherishes individualism， who values personal success over group success. By contrast， Chinese people， successors of Confucianism， who value group/family responsibility， place group goals and needs ahead of those of the individual， and take actions and process information in ways consistent with their collectivist values， which put them into intensive care for family and others （Dodd， 1995）. Therefore， Chinese people are generally modest， conservative， group concerned， and less competitive. As individualists， Americans are of the characteristics of directness， self–confidence， assertiveness and being competitive.

Cultural values will be reflected consciously or unconsciously in body language. Compared with American women， Chinese traditional females， influenced by Confucian culture are generally humble， conservative and shy， with head bent down and cautious posture in public places；while American females generally impress people with a image of confidence， vigor and self–assurance by maintaining straight and erect posture， keeping shoulders back and holding head high （Mitchell， 2002）.

2.2 Hierarchy （Large Power Distance） vs Individual （Small Power Distance）

In terms of social relationship as a cultural orientation， Chinese people， under the hierarchical system （vertical）， are obedient and loyal to their authority. By contrast， Americans individualists， emphasizing a horizontal relationship and having linear pattern of conversation， tend to express their own feelings and ideas frankly （（Davis， 2001）. Accordingly， Chinese culture values Large Power Distance in relation to their seniors and superiors， while American culture values Small Power Distance， in which everybody is equal to express himself and make his decision.

Oculesics （a study of eye behavior） affects international communication as an aspect of kinesics. According to Ellsworth and Ludwig （1972）， eyes contact varies with personality and sex but greatly influence credibility. But the amount of proper eye contact varies greatly from culture to culture. They reported that dominant and socially poised individuals seem to have more eye contact than do submissive， socially anxious persons. Americans take direct eye contact as a sign of honesty and sincerity. It shows interest and attentiveness in the communicative situations， while a lack of eye contact or shifty eyes is taken as a sign of untruthfulness. When greeting or conversing， American children are taught to look others directly in the eyes to show their good education；if not， it means shyness or weakness. As for Chinese people， however， to avoid direct eye contact and cast their eyes downwards in the process of communication is a sign of listening and showing respect and reverence for authority. Besides， for Americans， rolling the eyes unconsciously reveals incredulity. Moreover， widening of the eyes， in Chinese peoples view， is an indicator of anger or curiosity；while， for Americans， especially， Black Americans， is a sign of persuasion， meaning Im innocent （Dodd， 1995）.endprint

Chinese people seldom challenge authority， because they keep in mind the deep-rooted traditional hierarchical concepts. While Americans are competitive yet egalitarian （Tyler， 1987）. Take teacher–student relationship for example， in Chinese culture， the teacher is not only a firm disciplinary figure but high on the social hierarchy and a teachers image is sacred and inviolable. Therefore， Chinese people are shocked to see what they consider disrespectful attitudes toward teachers and school administration by American students， say， posture in the classroom， admiring the informality of the student-teacher relationship and the freedom of expression and individual growth. American students， maybe after a few minutes seriousness， tend to slouch， that is， be seated relaxed and casual， even sometimes put their feet on chairs. Likewise， Chinese students will be astounded at the first sight of American teachers sitting on the platform even putting the feet on the desk in the classroom.

In addition， in China， one must consider the relationship of the person one greets；bowing occurs at more precipitous levels， depending on the relationship and the status of the other person– in general， the more status， the lower the bow. The same type of principle holds true for the order of greeting. In America， one greets persons in a group by convenience and proximity to each other. However in China， one must greet the head of a family or older person first， then the younger ones （Hong， 1976）.

2.3 High – Context vs Low – Context Cultures

Chinese culture is a culture in which information about procedure is not overly communicated， which is called a High-Context Culture or HCC （Hall， 1976）. American culture， however， provides information to equip members with procedures and practices in a number of situations， which is called a Low-Context Culture or LCC. Members in HCC are expected to know how to perform， with implicit information and cultural rules in the context；while members in LCC tend to explain procedures and discuss expectations with explicit information. In this sense， Chinese people are expected to be much more likely to convey message than Americans by virtue of implicit means such as facial expression in body language.

In experts view （Matsumoto， Wallbott & Scherer， 1989）， different cultures exhibit the same basic facial responses， such as sadness， happiness， anger， surprise and fear. It is widely accepted that the reason we smile when we are happy and cry when sad is that smiling and crying are part of our biological inheritance. Ekman and Friesen （1972）， however， described as display rules that people in HCC tend to hide their negative expressions with a smile when faced with the emotion–packed situations. An alternative account is offered in which the face provides information relevant to emotion but does not signal a specific emotion. Therefore， in specified circumstances， situational rather than facial information was predicted to determine the judged emotion.endprint

In Chinese culture， self-discipline and self-control are emphasized， and Chinese people are proficient at controlling their feelings. This suppression of emotions gave rise to the stereotypical nation of “the inscrutable Chinese”. One should only speak when spoken to， speak only if one has something important to say， have inner stamina to tolerate crises and is a solid performer and not show any emotion （LMI， 1990）. In contrast， Americans who concerns for clarity， directness， truth telling and straight talk， concentrate on written words such as memos， letters， maps， manuals and what people say， pay little attention to message sent nonverbally and are unconscious of the situation， the roles of participants and other factors that make up the context of the words. As a result， they often fail to notice any social expectations that are not expressed in words （Davis， 2001）. To the reserved Chinese， sentimental， open and romantic Americans appear too forward and impulsive. Americans consider “smile” a highly positive sign – a sign of a warming relationship （Mitchell， 2002） and they are quick to smile when facing even strangers. Therefore， how can Americans understand smiling for Chinese people can cover a variety of emotions：happiness， anger， confusion， apologies， embarrassment and sadness？

2.4 Shame–Culture vs Guilt–Culture

Stella Ting–Toomey （1985） thinks， LCC encourages communicators to separate the issue from the person， even at the cost of personal relationships. Guilt Culture dominates Americans， who are fully aware of the difference between right and wrong and have the tendency of feeling guilty if he or she does or even thinks something improper or wrong. By contrast， HCC tends to separate the person from the issue. If you attack the issue， you are assumed to be attacking the person and would create embarrassment or ill will. In addition， Chinese people are encouraged to be influenced by the people around them and are likely to feel ashamed if they fail to live up to others expectations. Although in Shame Culture， the good is expected by everyone， yet， it may be hard to achieve in every situation. Therefore， it is necessary for Chinese people in Shame Culture to smooth the perceived attacks with the motive to save face. For example， a speaker really made an embarrassing speech because he forgot what he should say on the stage， which may encounter hiss and boo or catcalls to show Americans dissatisfaction， but in the same situation， Chinese people will still show their encouragement and sympathy by giving the speaker applauds， which is a hand gesture representing praise and appreciation in American culture.endprint

2.5 Relationship–driven vs Task–driven

A U.S. dominant cultural value toward time， which is reflected in phrases such as “Time is money.” and “ A stitch in time saves nine .” determines its Task–driven culture. Americans emphasize task accomplishment over relationships， and Chinese people opposite. Task culture views stress how self–worth comes from accomplishment and success. Therefore， working hard and successful task accomplishment are methods to prove oneself. In contrast， Chinese culture value relationship， in which the driving force is thinking of others and finishing the relationship needs ahead of personal goals and schedules （Dodd， 1995）. A typical example in body language is Americans executive almost always attends meetings or presentations， armed with notepad and pen for the fulfillment of the task， while the same work will be granted to the secretary by Chinese executives.

In addition， business cards are often exchanged at the first meeting for Chinese people aiming at the establishment of relationship， and it is more respectful to present your card using both hands. Compared with Chinese people， Americans appear more indifferent；once the task is accomplished， the card will be little significance for them.

2.6 Feminine vs Masculine

Task–driven culture， to a great extent， is characteristic of Masculine culture which views work as more central to ones life， and cherishes strength， material success， assertiveness and competitiveness. Feminine culture tends to accept fluid gender roles， embrace traits of affection， compassion， nurturing and interpersonal relationships （Sudweeks， 1991）. Therefore， American Masculine culture tends to use more aggressive styles of communication. Their problem–solving methods and conflict– management techniques would center around bottom–line issues， strict coping and debriefing information techniques. In contrast， Chinese Feminine culture is probably much more capable of reading nonverbal messages and better prepared to deal with ambiguity. Take the basic etiquette “greeting” as an example. The western custom of shaking hands is the customary form of greeting， and Americans shake hands， and from an early age they are taught to do so with a firm， solid grip， but in China often a nod of the head or slight bow with smile is sufficient. Even if Chinese people shake hands when they meet， they usually take the limp handshake to show equality， while Americans take up the firm handshake as a vital test of their opponent–the firmer， the better （Mitchell， 2002）.endprint

2.7 Contact culture vs Low–Contact culture

Its suggested that some cultures are highly touch oriented and others non-touching ones characterized with infrequent touches. The contact cultures using more touch and less space include Latin America， Middle East， Southern and Eastern Europe. They prefer sensory involvement. In contrast， North Americans， Asians and Northern Europeans are considered Low–Contact cultures and express more of a distancing style （Dodd， 1995）. Unlike Arabian countries， both China and America belong to Low–Contact culture （non-touching culture）.

As many researchers of nonverbal communication agree， touching is an extremely powerful way of communicating with other people. The specific meaning of a touch is dependent upon the relationship of the people who are involved， the specific situation， the type of touch， and where a person is touched （Pearson & Spitzberg， 1990）. Generally speaking， the Chinese are not a touch-oriented society （especially true for visitors）， so they avoid touching or any prolonged form of body contact. Both belonging to Low–Contact culture， however， China and America sometimes view differently in some specific situations because of cultural taboos. Touch of children is associated with positive， affectionate attitudes in China while for Americans it is a taboo

（畢繼萬， 2001）.

Besides， personal space refers to an individuals unconsciously structuring the micro space immediately surrounding the physical body. This space is not only culturally determined but results from varying relationships. Personal space is much less in China than in American. The Chinese will stand much closer than Americans. Besides， dont worry about a bit of pushing and shoving in stores or when groups board public buses or trains in China， and apologies are neither offered or expected （Axtell， 1993）. Moreover， fifty Chinese can crowd into the same amount of space that holds only twenty Americans， because some Chinese people have little regard for personal space. Interaction between parallel personal space zones is comfortable， but interaction between unparallel personal space zones is uncomfortable. Therefore， intercultural communicators need to realize that cultures have alternative approaches to space and ways of using to avoid misunderstanding and discomfort.

2.8 Chart （A comparison of cultural values between China and America）

3. Conclusion

Knowing how to read body language is a useful communication skill between cultures. The most realistic significance in dealing with the relations between culture and body language is to handle successfully cultural shock of nonverbal communication， for which Samovar （1991） put forward three principles in understanding the nonverbal behaviors in foreign cultures：first， never forget that a few even more nonverbal movements happen simultaneously in practical communication when one focuses on a particular nonverbal behavior；second， nobody can exemplify and depict all the nonverbal behaviors of every culture， but we can obtain a general knowledge of the information needed if we can make sense of common nonverbal behavior information in cross—cultural communicative context；third， only if we know about the nonverbal behaviors of native culture， can we comprehend nonverbal behaviors of foreign cultures （胡文仲， 1995）.endprint

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課題來源：本文受廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)校級(jí)教改項(xiàng)目“網(wǎng)絡(luò)自主與合作學(xué)習(xí)教學(xué)模式在《影視英語視聽說》精品課程中的探索與實(shí)踐”支持。

作者簡(jiǎn)介：馬小宇（1975-），女，湖南湘潭人，碩士，講師，主要研究方向：雙語教學(xué)，語篇分析，語用學(xué)。