黃名威 吳留成 周帆 覃宇周 陳建思
國家癌癥中心2015年數(shù)據(jù)[1]顯示,我國每年新發(fā)癌癥病例約337萬,發(fā)病率為250/10萬,每年癌癥死亡人數(shù)約211萬,死亡率為156/10萬,僅次于心腦血管疾病。眾所周知,惡性腫瘤治療后復(fù)發(fā)或遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移是治療失敗的主要原因。目前,臨床上發(fā)現(xiàn)和診斷惡性腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移主要依靠影像學(xué)檢查及傳統(tǒng)的腫瘤標(biāo)志物監(jiān)測,但兩者均難以早期發(fā)現(xiàn)轉(zhuǎn)移或復(fù)發(fā),也難以及時反映療效。因此,尋找更加靈敏的預(yù)測因子對監(jiān)測腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移具有重大現(xiàn)實意義。循環(huán)腫瘤細(xì)胞(circulating tumor cells,CTCs)的發(fā)現(xiàn)及研究使腫瘤早期診斷及療效預(yù)測成為研究熱點之一,本文就CTCs參與腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移機(jī)制的研究進(jìn)展作一綜述。
CTCs是指因自發(fā)或診療操作由原發(fā)灶或轉(zhuǎn)移灶進(jìn)入外周血循環(huán)的腫瘤細(xì)胞。1869年,澳大利亞A shworth教授在血液中發(fā)現(xiàn)類似原發(fā)灶腫瘤細(xì)胞的循環(huán)細(xì)胞,并首次提出CTCs的概念[2]。但由于技術(shù)原因,CTCs的研究并未引起足夠重視,直至Ce llS ear c h系統(tǒng)的問世才激起研究者對CTCs研究的密切關(guān)注。由于CTCs研究在腫瘤早期診斷、治療效果評估及腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)監(jiān)測等方面凸顯巨大潛力,已成為當(dāng)前癌癥研究的熱點之一。近年關(guān)于CTCs分離富集技術(shù)、鑒定方法及分子機(jī)制的研究不斷取得新的突破,已在乳腺癌[3]、前列腺癌[4]、肺癌[5]、結(jié)直腸癌[6]、頭頸部腫瘤[7]、胃癌[8-10]、胰腺癌[11]、肝癌[12]等證實CTCs的存在。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)CTCs與早期轉(zhuǎn)移[13]、療效反應(yīng)[14]及臨床預(yù)后[15]等密切相關(guān),并認(rèn)為CTCs可作為一種新型的診斷工具,為臨床提供良惡性診斷、臨床分期判定等信息,輔助臨床醫(yī)師診斷和治療。檢測CTCs較傳統(tǒng)的侵入性病理活檢具有取材方便、非創(chuàng)傷性、避免腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移擴(kuò)散和良好的重復(fù)性等特點,因此又被稱為“液相活檢”[16-17]。
由于外周血中CTCs的數(shù)量極少,僅為1~10個/10mL,因此,要從數(shù)百萬計的血細(xì)胞中分離CTCs,對技術(shù)的要求極高。根據(jù)分選原理不同,CTCs的分離富集技術(shù)可分為兩大類[18]:一是根據(jù)CTCs的物理學(xué)特性,如大小、密度、電荷及可塑性等進(jìn)行分離富集。方法主要有密度梯度離心法、膜過濾法及介電泳分離富集法等,每種富集方法均有其優(yōu)缺點。密度梯度離心法簡單經(jīng)濟(jì),但需要的血量較大,且分離后純度較低,易受單核細(xì)胞影響;而膜過濾法雖簡便、易于操作,但小于濾膜孔徑的CTCs會丟失,因此靈敏度較低;介電泳分離富集技術(shù)雖特異性較強(qiáng)、回收率較高,但因其通量較小、耗時較多,很少應(yīng)用于臨床。二是根據(jù)CTCs的生物學(xué)特性進(jìn)行分離富集,即根據(jù)CTCs表達(dá)的抗原有別于外周血細(xì)胞將捕獲的抗體包被于磁珠表面,利用抗原抗體特異性結(jié)合,當(dāng)血液經(jīng)外磁場時抗原抗體復(fù)合物被吸附并滯留,從而達(dá)到分離富集的目的。基于免疫學(xué)原理的CTCs分離富集技術(shù)的關(guān)鍵是尋找到理想的細(xì)胞標(biāo)志物,即用于識別的細(xì)胞抗原是CTCs特有且恒定表達(dá)的抗原,目前這種理想的標(biāo)志物尚未發(fā)現(xiàn)。由于大多數(shù)的實體腫瘤來源于上皮細(xì)胞,因此上皮細(xì)胞表面標(biāo)志物(如EpCAM、CK等)是目前研究上皮來源惡性腫瘤CTCs最常用的標(biāo)志物[18]。免疫分離富集法又可分為陽性分選法和陰性分選法。陽性分選法以CTCs作為目的細(xì)胞進(jìn)行直接捕獲,Cell Search系統(tǒng)是陽性分選技術(shù)的經(jīng)典代表。近年研究較多、發(fā)展最迅速的微流體芯片捕獲法[19-21]也屬于陽性分選法,該法將包被有E pC A M抗體的芯片附著于硅片上,當(dāng)全血流經(jīng)硅片時,芯片對CTCs進(jìn)行捕獲。微流體芯片分離富集方法自動化程度高,富集的CTCs純度高,但因制作復(fù)雜,成本高昂,且受周圍血流通暢性的影響,距大范圍臨床應(yīng)用尚需時日。依賴上皮細(xì)胞表面標(biāo)志物進(jìn)行分離富集CTCs的方法面臨的主要問題是可能出現(xiàn)假陰性和假陽性結(jié)果。研究表明,腫瘤細(xì)胞在脫落入血過程中,發(fā)生上皮-間質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)化(epi t he l ia l me s en c hyma l t ran s i t ion,E MT),腫瘤細(xì)胞表面標(biāo)志物表達(dá)發(fā)生變化[22],即上皮來源的標(biāo)志物表達(dá)下降,而間質(zhì)細(xì)胞標(biāo)志物(如V imen t in、T wi s t等)表達(dá)上調(diào),導(dǎo)致無法檢測到部分CTCs而產(chǎn)生假陰性結(jié)果;另外,血循環(huán)中上皮來源的細(xì)胞可能并非均為腫瘤細(xì)胞,已有報道[23]從結(jié)腸良性病變患者外周血中檢測到循環(huán)上皮細(xì)胞的存在。因此,以上皮細(xì)胞標(biāo)記進(jìn)行CTCs分離富集可能產(chǎn)生假陽性結(jié)果。與陽性分選法相反,陰性分選法先去除血細(xì)胞,最后達(dá)到富集CTCs的目的。陰性分選法不依賴CTCs表面標(biāo)志物的表達(dá),因此可用于多種腫瘤的CTCs富集,且富集的細(xì)胞活性較高,可作進(jìn)一步培養(yǎng)鑒定。但陰性富集法同樣存在缺陷,即純度不高,容易出現(xiàn)假陽性結(jié)果等。
根據(jù)CTCs特性進(jìn)行分離富集的過程亦是對CTCs檢測的過程,但有時為進(jìn)一步鑒定還需采用一些針對腫瘤細(xì)胞的技術(shù)方法對CTCs進(jìn)行檢測。常用的檢測技術(shù)方法有免疫細(xì)胞化學(xué)法(immunocy to chemistry,I CC)、熒光原位雜交法(fluorescence in situhy bridiation,F(xiàn)ISH)和RT-PCR法等。ICC技術(shù)借助針對腫瘤抗原的抗體反映細(xì)胞內(nèi)抗原的表達(dá),在細(xì)胞層面進(jìn)行計數(shù)和鑒定。I CC鑒定CTCs的主要缺點是缺乏特異性的腫瘤標(biāo)志物。FISH技術(shù)利用熒光標(biāo)記的特異核酸探針與細(xì)胞內(nèi)相應(yīng)的靶DNA分子或RNA分子雜交,通過熒光顯微鏡下觀察熒光信號,計數(shù)與特異探針雜交后被染色的細(xì)胞。Li等[24]利用SET-iFISH技術(shù)對晚期胃癌患者CTCs進(jìn)行檢測,結(jié)果陽性率為90.5%,靈敏性較高。RT-PCR法主要檢測來自CTCs的腫瘤基因表達(dá),但CTCs經(jīng)過E MT后,其基因表達(dá)會發(fā)生變化,因此該法的特異性受限;同時由于PCR技術(shù)本身的高敏性,亦可能出現(xiàn)假陽性結(jié)果[25]。此外,為研究CTCs的生物學(xué)功能(如成瘤性、侵襲性等),需對富集的CTCs進(jìn)行體外培養(yǎng)或體內(nèi)移植成瘤等實驗[26-27],但由于CTCs數(shù)量極少,其中包含的成瘤性細(xì)胞(如腫瘤干細(xì)胞或腫瘤起始細(xì)胞)更少,因此功能性實驗仍面臨許多困難。
盡管研究已證實CTCs的存在與腫瘤分期、預(yù)后及治療反應(yīng)等有關(guān),但對CTCs分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制的研究仍處于初步探索階段。研究表明,并非所有的CTCs均具備轉(zhuǎn)移能力。侵入循環(huán)系統(tǒng)的腫瘤細(xì)胞大部分由于機(jī)體的免疫識別、機(jī)械殺傷或失巢凋亡可在短期內(nèi)死亡,只有極少數(shù)存活,在適宜自身存活和增殖的器官或組織形成轉(zhuǎn)移灶。這些少數(shù)的CTCs如何獲得存活甚至在靶器官定植、增殖形成轉(zhuǎn)移灶的能力及其調(diào)控機(jī)制仍是目前的研究熱點[28]。
研究發(fā)現(xiàn)CTCs在轉(zhuǎn)移過程中會產(chǎn)生不同的表型變化,以逃避機(jī)體的免疫殺傷或獲得抵抗失巢凋亡的能力,適應(yīng)新的生存環(huán)境,其中最重要的表型變化是E MT[28]。E MT是上皮表型細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榫哂虚g質(zhì)細(xì)胞特性的過程,表現(xiàn)為各類上皮標(biāo)志物(如E pC A M、C K等)表達(dá)減少和間質(zhì)細(xì)胞來源蛋白質(zhì)(如波形蛋白等)表達(dá)增加。利用這一特點,研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)許多腫瘤CTCs表現(xiàn)出E MT特性,如轉(zhuǎn)移性前列腺癌CTCs中E MT相關(guān)基因高表達(dá)[29];胃癌CTCs不僅存在上皮、間質(zhì)分型,且間質(zhì)型CTCs還可能與治療預(yù)后相關(guān)[30];轉(zhuǎn)移性非小細(xì)胞肺癌CTCs中波形蛋白高表達(dá)[31];最近我國多家大型醫(yī)療中心聯(lián)合研究結(jié)果同樣發(fā)現(xiàn)結(jié)直腸癌中存在E MT現(xiàn)象,通過檢測CTCs上皮和間質(zhì)表型相關(guān)基因?qū)TCs進(jìn)行分型有助于判斷腫瘤分期及預(yù)后等[32]。這些研究結(jié)果均提示CTCs中存在E MT現(xiàn)象。通過E MT過程,腫瘤病灶細(xì)胞間的緊密連接和黏附可發(fā)生改變,而具有侵襲轉(zhuǎn)移潛能的CTCs常表現(xiàn)出E MT特性,這可能與E MT可促使單個細(xì)胞從緊密連接的細(xì)胞層分離并游走遷移至血管有關(guān)[33]。E MT對促進(jìn)CTCs滲透到血管和維持CTCs在血管中生存也有一定作用[34];E MT還可能促使CTCs獲得干細(xì)胞特征而更易于復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移及耐藥[35-36]?;贓 MT在CTCs中的重要作用,從E MT方向研究CTCs的分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制十分必要。國內(nèi)學(xué)者基于Canpa t ro l TM技術(shù)平臺[30,32,37],對結(jié)直腸癌患者術(shù)前術(shù)后的CTCs進(jìn)行研究,通過檢測結(jié)直腸癌CTCs上皮標(biāo)志物EpCAM、CK8、CK18、CK19及間質(zhì)標(biāo)志物V imen t in、T wi s t的表達(dá),并利用這些標(biāo)志物將CTCs分型(上皮型、間質(zhì)型和混合型)。結(jié)果表明,隨著病理分期進(jìn)展,CTCs總數(shù)及間質(zhì)型CTCs比例均顯著升高(P<0.05),而上皮型CTCs比例則顯著降低(P<0.05),且間質(zhì)型CTCs與遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移顯著相關(guān)(P<0.05)。上述研究結(jié)果提示,CTCs在惡性腫瘤進(jìn)展過程中存在E MT現(xiàn)象,E MT可能是CTCs獲得存活及轉(zhuǎn)移能力的重要機(jī)制。
腫瘤干細(xì)胞(cancerste mcells,CSCs)是一類具有自我增殖、分化、更新等特性的腫瘤細(xì)胞,已證實在多種腫瘤中存在[38],并被認(rèn)為是腫瘤的“種子”細(xì)胞。而CTCs作為存在于血液系統(tǒng)中高活力、高轉(zhuǎn)移潛能的細(xì)胞,可能具備C S C s特性。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在黑色素瘤[39]、轉(zhuǎn)移性乳腺癌[40]及肺癌[41]中存在高表達(dá)CD133的CTCs,且其與不良預(yù)后密切相關(guān)。頭頸部腫瘤[42]、轉(zhuǎn)移性乳腺癌[43]、胃癌[44]的CTCs則存在CD44+亞群;相較于原發(fā)乳腺癌,A LDH1high/TW IS T nu c的CTCs在轉(zhuǎn)移性乳腺癌中更常見[45]。但也有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在轉(zhuǎn)移性結(jié)直腸癌CTCs與CD44或CD133不存在相關(guān)性,而A LDH1、S ur v i v in、M R P5與CTCs顯著相關(guān)[46]。由于CTCs具有E MT的特性,間質(zhì)型CTCs通常被認(rèn)為更有形成轉(zhuǎn)移灶的能力。但T am等[47]則提出不同的看法,認(rèn)為介于上皮型和間質(zhì)型的CTCs表型才可能具有遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移形成腫瘤的能力,即具備C S C s的特性。綜上所述,CTCs與C S C s雖然具有共同特征,但兩者并不完全等同,C S C s可能是CTCs的一種特殊類型,或者是具有干細(xì)胞特性的異質(zhì)性CTCs,這使CTCs可長期存在于血液循環(huán)并保持高侵襲轉(zhuǎn)移性。
CTCs的存在已得到證實,且與腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移關(guān)系密切。CTCs的分離富集和檢測技術(shù)已取得巨大進(jìn)步,但對CTCs生物行為及機(jī)制仍知之甚少。因此CTCs檢測應(yīng)用于臨床診斷及治療的意義和價值還需進(jìn)一步研究。當(dāng)前CTCs的研究大多著眼于CTCs自身特性而忽略CTCs與原發(fā)灶、CTCs與腫瘤微環(huán)境及機(jī)體內(nèi)環(huán)境的整體關(guān)系。腫瘤機(jī)體內(nèi)環(huán)境的失衡對CTCs生物學(xué)行為的調(diào)控可能是大多數(shù)惡性腫瘤出現(xiàn)復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移的重要機(jī)制。CTCs能在血液循環(huán)中存活并最終增殖形成轉(zhuǎn)移灶,這離不開生長因子及相應(yīng)信號通路的維持與調(diào)控,而針對這一領(lǐng)域的研究則有可能成為打開惡性腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移機(jī)制之門的一把金鑰匙。
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