修復地球表面肌膚
——德國礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復再利用理論與實踐

（德）漢斯-約阿希姆·馬德爾 孔洞一 崔慶偉

修復地球表面肌膚
——德國礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復再利用理論與實踐

（德）漢斯-約阿希姆·馬德爾 孔洞一 崔慶偉＊

在目前資源危機日益加劇的全球城市化進程中，采礦區(qū)就像大地肌膚上的瘡疤一樣需要人們的呵護。德國作為工業(yè)最為發(fā)達的資本主義國家之一，在礦區(qū)修復再生領(lǐng)域積累了極為豐富的經(jīng)驗，取得了舉世矚目的成就。介紹了德國在礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復和再利用方面的一些思想理念與操作方式，以望對中國礦區(qū)修復改造相關(guān)的管理、規(guī)劃設(shè)計與工程實踐有所借鑒。根據(jù)其主要流程與工作內(nèi)容，具體從以下4個方面展開論述：問題評估與機構(gòu)安排、法律基礎(chǔ)與規(guī)劃流程、修復技術(shù)與自然過程、社會參與和功能轉(zhuǎn)換。

德國；規(guī)劃流程；修復技術(shù)；社會參與；再利用

隨著世界人口增長和生活水平的提高，資源消耗量越來越大。這些資源大部分都隱藏在地球表層，他們?yōu)閯又参锷L提供能量，也為二氧化碳的吸收和氧氣的供給起著重要作用。這些資源為我們?nèi)祟惿嫣峁┗A(chǔ)條件，而多數(shù)人卻不知道地球表面就像人的皮膚一樣敏感——它是一個由各種無機物、土壤、水、微生物和動植物等組成的高度復雜的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。

在德國，每天有66hm2的土地成為居住或交通用地，自然資源也因此大量消失[1]。到2030年，這一數(shù)字將減少至30hm2，但依然有大量土地被占用。人們似乎已經(jīng)習慣把土地作為隨手可得的免費資源肆意攫取，礦產(chǎn)資源更是如此——過去200多年德國的褐煤開采、歷史上的殖民地礦區(qū)以及目前高速發(fā)展中的中國對礦產(chǎn)資源的集中采掘已造成大面積亟待修復的大地表皮（圖1）。

“修復”的本意是恢復可利用耕地或牧場的生產(chǎn)性能力，目前則更強調(diào)讓土地恢復到自然保護和自我生息的狀態(tài)。人們也逐漸認識到：對于“地球皮膚”的每一處傷害都必須遵循一個治療過程慢慢恢復；修復過程以及開發(fā)再利用也應該考慮到人類干預和合理的規(guī)劃流程。德國在礦區(qū)修復改造領(lǐng)域積累了較為豐富的經(jīng)驗，原東德地區(qū)的褐煤礦區(qū)修復以及魯爾區(qū)的工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)改造項目成效斐然[2]。借鑒德國礦區(qū)修復改造項目的運作方式，本文將結(jié)合具體案例從以下4個方面對其主要規(guī)劃流程和工作內(nèi)容進行介紹，希望對中國目前的礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復與改造再利用實踐有所啟示。這4個方面工作包括：問題評估與機構(gòu)安排、法律基礎(chǔ)與規(guī)劃流程、修復技術(shù)與自然過程、社會參與和功能轉(zhuǎn)換。

1 中國西部甘肅地區(qū)的一處廢棄礦坑Mining pit in Gansu province, west China

2 德國薩克森州褐煤礦的采礦區(qū)與輻射影響區(qū)Mining areas and radiation affected areas in Saxony region in Germany

1 問題評估與機構(gòu)安排

廢棄礦區(qū)修復改造作為一項占地規(guī)模廣、持續(xù)時間長且耗資巨大的系統(tǒng)工程，在實際運作過程中首先需要對礦區(qū)環(huán)境問題進行評估，同時要考慮制度設(shè)計與機構(gòu)設(shè)置等管理層面的問題。尤其對于土地權(quán)屬發(fā)生變化和利益相關(guān)者較為復雜的區(qū)域，需要通過組織各方協(xié)商和建立合作平臺形成較為明確的組織管理機構(gòu)，并設(shè)計合理的融資渠道與利益分配方式等。

20世紀70年代以來，德國東部的薩克森州地區(qū)因為褐煤資源枯竭造成大量的礦區(qū)廢棄地。在東德時代這里曾經(jīng)每年生產(chǎn)3億t的褐煤，而常年的開采已對其輻射區(qū)域的地下水和地表徑流造成了污染，并對礦區(qū)生態(tài)多樣性造成了危害（圖2）。由于地質(zhì)構(gòu)造特點，該區(qū)域許多地下水層因褐煤露天開采被切斷或損害，加之開采產(chǎn)生的廢水回流進入地下水以及匯入地表徑流，造成了整個區(qū)域的水系污染。另外，露天開采導致大面積的裸露土壤和巖石，而這些“非生物環(huán)境”的惡性板塊隨著時間推移會逐漸蔓延直至引起整個區(qū)域的植被退化。上述環(huán)境問題，都需要在初期進行評估和檢測。

此外，項目之初還需考慮組織機構(gòu)與功能轉(zhuǎn)換，而這牽涉到礦場所有權(quán)和利益協(xié)調(diào)問題。由于兩德統(tǒng)一前后的政治體制變化導致修復責任主體劃定比較復雜：該區(qū)域煤礦在東德時期完全國有，統(tǒng)一之后則分屬周圍幾個州及其他不同利益群體[3]。誰來支付高額的修復費用？這需要建立一個協(xié)商談判的組織架構(gòu)（圖3）。經(jīng)過利益談判和組織協(xié)商，多家相關(guān)利益群體最終達成了共同分擔修復費用的協(xié)議。

該架構(gòu)中的一個重要角色是“中部德國褐煤產(chǎn)業(yè)協(xié)會”（LMBV），其職責主要是協(xié)調(diào)各方利益，統(tǒng)籌修復和再利用的規(guī)劃和進程。其主要任務(wù)有以下幾點：1）做好前期的生態(tài)和地質(zhì)評估；2）確定廢棄的和不能再開采的礦區(qū)；3）評估修復礦區(qū)的生態(tài)效益；4）檢測和治理礦區(qū)及其輻射范圍內(nèi)的水污染；5）恢復礦區(qū)裸露地表的植被；6）在區(qū)域規(guī)劃的框架下，協(xié)調(diào)各方利益，形成礦區(qū)修復后的再利用決策機制。依托上述架構(gòu)，LMBV通過協(xié)調(diào)各方利益，最終形成了一個由各個州政府牽頭、由相關(guān)利益團體選舉產(chǎn)生的聯(lián)合辦事機構(gòu)[4]。該機構(gòu)簽訂了《褐煤礦區(qū)改造項目共同綱領(lǐng)》文件，從而達成法律層面的共同體，并在具體事務(wù)上維護各方利益，共同推進礦區(qū)改造進程。

2 法律基礎(chǔ)與規(guī)劃流程

德國褐煤礦區(qū)的修復改造規(guī)劃主要涉及3方面的法律法規(guī)（圖4）：一是區(qū)域與空間規(guī)劃法；二是能源政策；三是各類環(huán)境保護法。區(qū)域與空間規(guī)劃法和能源政策共同決定了土地利用規(guī)劃和修復規(guī)劃；而環(huán)境保護法則決定修復規(guī)劃在水體、植被、污染治理等方面的專項細則。這些法律條例通過監(jiān)督礦業(yè)公司行為和收取相關(guān)稅收來保證修復工作順利開展，并通過公眾參與和修復技術(shù)實現(xiàn)礦區(qū)生態(tài)補償和環(huán)境效益平衡的目的[5]。

德國早在1980年就頒布了針對采礦區(qū)環(huán)境修復規(guī)劃的相關(guān)法規(guī)。2005年的《區(qū)域規(guī)劃法》對于褐煤礦區(qū)修復做了更為明確的規(guī)定，包括勘測地下水范圍和開采其影響的區(qū)域、地表植被保護與恢復以及修復后再利用的土地性質(zhì)和功能選擇等。弗萊堡大學的Klapperich Wolf教授還總結(jié)了一套系統(tǒng)的規(guī)劃研究流程（圖5）。具體包括：1）問題評估與基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)：建立環(huán)境監(jiān)測點、評估站、交通系統(tǒng)、技術(shù)管理和建設(shè)管理機構(gòu)；2）礦區(qū)環(huán)境修復：選取采樣區(qū)進行修復技術(shù)評估（例如具體的水體凈化與土壤修復），衡量礦產(chǎn)資源價值與環(huán)境價值以及環(huán)境檢測機制；3）輻射區(qū)環(huán)境修復：與礦區(qū)基本相同；4）保護、恢復與復墾：建筑保護、植被恢復和生境再造等；5）功能轉(zhuǎn)換：改造再利用的可能性討論。

3 修復技術(shù)與自然過程

有研究指出，礦區(qū)修復的總體目標是通過實現(xiàn)自然保護、休閑觀光與大地肌理恢復，把受損礦區(qū)修復為具有生機活力的生態(tài)環(huán)境和景觀場地（圖6）。具體操作內(nèi)容包括林地荒地恢復與保育、農(nóng)田牧場或山體風貌恢復以及水體污染治理等，最終可劃定地域生態(tài)控制邊界，并形成與區(qū)域大地肌理相融合的植被群落外貌與風景空間，以及經(jīng)過處理的水體凈化系統(tǒng)。

在政策法律保障、公眾和企業(yè)環(huán)境意識覺醒以及精細化的檢測和修復技術(shù)共同作用下，目前在德國礦區(qū)修復越來越受到人們的重視，其投入到“植被恢復”“污染場地治理”“水體治理”的費用也越來越高[6]。

3.1 水體恢復

水體修復需要首先對于礦區(qū)及其周邊輻射區(qū)域的水體進行檢測評估，然后根據(jù)檢測評估結(jié)果開展有針對性的修復治理措施。診斷評估首先需要檢測地表水和地下水是否具備好的生物與化學性狀，是否有礦區(qū)的污染物進入到地表水或地下水中，然后判斷其超標物質(zhì)是否來自于礦區(qū)污染物，并對相應責任方實行“問責”。為了保證自然水體不受礦區(qū)廢水污染，可以采取開挖廢水凈化渠和廢水沉淀池的方式（圖7）：從礦區(qū)內(nèi)把采礦廢水通過渠道輸送到規(guī)劃好的湖區(qū)對其進行凈化處理，從而避免周邊水體受到污染。

3 薩克森州褐煤礦區(qū)環(huán)境修復與改造項目的公共參與組織架構(gòu)Organizational structure of public participation in environmental rehabilitation project of Saxony lignite region

4 德國的礦區(qū)環(huán)境修復法律與規(guī)劃框架Legal and planning framework for Reclamation of mining areas in Germany

5 采礦區(qū)的生態(tài)修復研究流程Research procedure of mining areas’ ecological restoration

褐色水體是一種常見的水體污染問題，其危害包括妨礙沉水植物光合作用以及阻礙魚類呼吸造成其缺氧窒息等。這是由于開采礦石遺留的廢水未經(jīng)處理排放造成的，其水體礦物質(zhì)含量較多而有機質(zhì)和氧氣含量過少。治理措施包括修建廢水沉淀池，布置充氧設(shè)施和培植水生動植物等。因此其河流盡量營造蜿蜒曲折的駁岸形式，以為兩棲動物、爬行動物和昆蟲等創(chuàng)造良好的濱水棲息地。

酸堿度失調(diào)是另一種常見的水體污染問題。如圖8所示沉淀池里的硫酸鹽嚴重超標，造成水體pH值嚴重偏酸性，而且含有一定的重金屬鹽。其應對措施包括：1）將干凈的水注入其中，中和其酸堿度；2）利用化學方法使得硫酸鹽鈣化析出；3）利用水體凈化裝置，使得其中的重金屬成分析出。針對具體措施，可以讓各個領(lǐng)域的專家參與指導[7]。

6 生態(tài)修復的目標與3個層面的措施Purpose of ecological restoration and measures at three levels

7 薩克森州褐煤采礦區(qū)的采礦廢水渠與沉淀池分布圖Location of waste water purification ditch and settling tanks in Saxony region

8 薩克森州褐煤采礦區(qū)的沉淀池Waste water settling tanks in Saxony Region

3.2 植被恢復

植被恢復是礦區(qū)修復的重點問題。采礦活動往往產(chǎn)生大面積的裸露地表，不經(jīng)過及時修復容易蔓延到更大區(qū)域。植被修復的面積往往比較大，也經(jīng)常處理一些容易造成水土流失的斜坡地或巖石堆體。同時，礦區(qū)裸露地面的土壤酸堿度往往超標，因此首先需要進行土壤改良——即把不利于植被生長的土壤改良為適宜的土壤，然后選擇適應性強的先鋒樹種和草本植物進行培育。

需要強調(diào)的是，植被恢復盡量避免單一結(jié)構(gòu)的種植方式。所謂“單一種植結(jié)構(gòu)”，就是單一樹種，單一胸徑，單一株行距。目前這在中國礦區(qū)修復中十分常見（圖9），其生態(tài)成本巨大——抵御病蟲害和惡劣環(huán)境侵襲的能力較弱，生態(tài)多樣性很低，不能夠形成豐富的生境環(huán)境類型。對此，植被栽植應遵循以下原則：1）選擇地方性樹種；2）植物群落和種群規(guī)劃避免采用線性和方形陣列，有意留出空間間隙，提高生態(tài)多樣性；3）速生慢生樹種相互搭配，兼顧喜光與耐陰樹種的搭配[8]。同時盡量采取自然演替的植被自我修復方式（圖10）。許多廢棄地先有野生植被對表層土壤形成固定作用，然后逐漸演替成為豐富的植被群落，當然這也往往需要一個長期過程。

除了考慮植物種類與群落結(jié)構(gòu)多樣性，植被恢復還注重建立動物自然棲息地（如小片水體或開闊旱地），并應考慮與鄰近森林的生態(tài)聯(lián)系（棲息地連接系統(tǒng)）。例如德國目前建議在正在運行的采礦區(qū)開辟出一片保護區(qū)不進行生產(chǎn)，以更好地豐富當?shù)氐纳鷳B(tài)多樣性。

此外，對于改造為休閑娛樂花園的修復項目，可以引入多樣的園林觀賞植物。例如著名的埃姆舍公園改造項目中，設(shè)計師彼得 拉茨（Peter Latz）就有意保留廢棄工礦場地內(nèi)的網(wǎng)格狀空間并種植了多種植物。此外還可以設(shè)置觀光廊道開展科學普及，向人們揭示從草本到木本植物的演替過程，反映大自然總是在變化的真理。

3.3 土壤修復與水土保持

9 中國西北礦區(qū)單一結(jié)構(gòu)的復墾植被栽植Unitary planting in the mining lands’ reclamation in northwest China

10 野生植物在廢棄礦區(qū)的自然演替Natural succession of wild plants in abandoned mining areas

11 薩克森州進行土壤修復的礦區(qū)工地Construction site of soil restoration in Saxony region

褐煤礦區(qū)一般存在土壤腐蝕、水土流失、土壤酸堿化、腐殖質(zhì)含量減少、透氣性降低、土壤基層地質(zhì)松動以及生物種類單一等問題。如果缺乏防止水土流失的有效措施，生態(tài)修復區(qū)便會在沖刷、風化、沙化作用下變成生態(tài)惡劣區(qū)域。對此，地表植被覆蓋、梯田式種植帶、修筑水土保持阻擋帶以及木本植物固土栽培等措施都可以起到很好的水土保持作用（圖11），控制土壤營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)流失。用作復耕的土地還需要進行更加細致的改良。例如加入改良物質(zhì)調(diào)節(jié)酸堿度，添加人工培育的腐殖質(zhì)增強土壤肥力。復耕的土壤層厚度需要在2m以上，然后將腐殖質(zhì)黃土混合的培養(yǎng)土鋪在修復面上，厚度保持在20～50cm[8]。之后需要種植先鋒植物，利用其根系固定土壤。

針對不同污染物類型可使用不同的修復方法：無機污染物（如重金屬）可以通過表面活性劑或有機溶劑去除，也可以用高壓提取或利用壓縮氣體（例如二氧化碳）作為萃取劑，以及通過植物進行富集吸收[7]；去除有機污染物（如礦物油和溶劑）的最常用方法是高溫處理——在溫度達到1 100℃的旋轉(zhuǎn)爐里，有機物質(zhì)揮發(fā)出來變成廢氣，再經(jīng)過物理沉淀和生物吸收（例如苯、氯化烴等有毒物質(zhì)）收集在過濾裝置內(nèi)[7]。

3.4 物種保護與生境修復

由于生態(tài)意識增強，目前德國的礦區(qū)修復實踐目標早已從以農(nóng)林復墾為主轉(zhuǎn)向建立休閑用地、重構(gòu)生物循環(huán)體和保護物種[9]。物種保護與生境修復目前在德國乃至歐洲礦區(qū)修復工作中扮演著越來越重要的角色。德國有大約2%的國土面積被列為荒地和保護瀕危物種的場所，自然保護區(qū)和很多森林公園里設(shè)立有珍稀物種保護地。許多廢棄礦區(qū)因長期無人干擾也往往成為各類野生動植物的棲息地，而這需要在修復規(guī)劃中予以利用。

馬德爾博士作為德國環(huán)境問題專家，在參與阿爾及利亞東北部EI Dough山區(qū)采石場生態(tài)修復項目中采取各種措施以增加其生物多樣性。從法國殖民時代到今天，這片區(qū)域的大多數(shù)采石場未經(jīng)人工修復和再利用。面對一處位于懸崖下面比較濕潤的采石廢棄地，研究人員選擇合適地點利用天然黏土建造了一處小池塘作為山脈蠑（Pleurodeles poireti）等當?shù)貫l危物種的棲息地（圖12），保證它們在合適的生命周期內(nèi)在此產(chǎn)卵孵化。

此外，廢棄采石場也可能為大型鳥類提供棲息地，例如猛禽類的禿鷹和山鷹棲居的崖壁還有嗜血蝙蝠居住的洞穴等。研究者會為崖壁和洞穴設(shè)計安裝一些人工巢穴或簡單固定的木板，從而為鳥類提供更多的生存環(huán)境。

其實，對于環(huán)境污染較少的采石場進行生態(tài)恢復，尤其面對較大區(qū)域的采石遺跡是不需要采取過多的人工修復措施的。采石巖石縫隙里本來已恢復有豐富的植被，它們可以進行自發(fā)的自然演替。例如在上述項目中，南安納巴鎮(zhèn)的一處采石場長期以來無人干預，目前已形成一個高度多樣化的植被群落，諸如甘遂、巖杜松、夏黃連、西洋黃連、油橄欖以及圣櫟等優(yōu)勢物種開始繁衍。這樣豐富而多樣化的植物群落棲息地，是人工難以創(chuàng)建的！

最后注意所有的“生態(tài)修復區(qū)”都需要采取適當?shù)膰鷻诜婪洞胧?，以防止野生動物（鹿或野豬等）侵襲脆弱的生態(tài)恢復區(qū)域。綜上所述，根據(jù)每一個礦區(qū)特點，需要采取不同的生態(tài)修復技術(shù)。規(guī)劃設(shè)計人員顯然無法掌握每一種生態(tài)修復技術(shù)，但卻應該在實踐過程中不斷學習，并讓相關(guān)專業(yè)人員參與進來。畢竟規(guī)劃師的使命就是協(xié)調(diào)與調(diào)動各方面專業(yè)人士與利益群體，使問題在一個有機協(xié)調(diào)的組織環(huán)境下得以解決。

12 小池塘的生態(tài)修復措施為采石場內(nèi)的山脈蠑提供棲息地Restoration measure of small pond provides habitat for Pleurodeles poireti

13 多方參與的規(guī)劃機制Planning mechanism of multi-participation

4 社會參與和功能轉(zhuǎn)換

在德國，礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復的場地再利用往往建立在廣泛的社會參與和討論基礎(chǔ)上。該討論多基于以下幾方面考慮：1）環(huán)境安全；2）經(jīng)濟效益和土地利用；3）風景空間與風貌的保護與塑造；4）自然保護。

參與討論的社會群體一般包括以下幾類：1）政府和代表公共利益的公益性團體，如自然保護人士和環(huán)境科學家等。環(huán)境安全和自然生態(tài)保護是他們的主要訴求，同時也包括提升礦區(qū)生活質(zhì)量，促進人們接近自然，提高健康水平，豐富公眾娛樂活動等。2）企業(yè)和開發(fā)商，更多從經(jīng)濟利益考慮，希望改造后的礦區(qū)可以盈利并具有再生產(chǎn)功能，例如作為復墾田、經(jīng)濟林、旅游區(qū)或者建造房屋租售等。3）文化學者和社會創(chuàng)新人士，諸如社會活動家、建筑師和風景園林師等則希望維持礦區(qū)特色風貌和保護風景資源，將其改造為滿足市民休閑娛樂和科普教育需求的開放空間和遺址公園等。

上述不同參與群體需要在一個討論框架下有組織有步驟地進行利益訴求和發(fā)展展望。這一討論機制大致包括3個層面內(nèi)容（圖13）：1）控制性原則，明確修復之后需要達到的生態(tài)效益指標以及形成投入/產(chǎn)出的財務(wù)預判；2）項目組織與社會參與——政府、企業(yè)、社會團體與個人等相關(guān)利益方在公平的討論機制下展開激烈爭論，并最終得出相互妥協(xié)滿意的結(jié)果，與此同時涉及區(qū)域利益協(xié)調(diào)的問題也會一并討論；3）方案執(zhí)行。經(jīng)過討論最終被確立的再利用規(guī)劃被委托給具體的項目實施單位，并建立監(jiān)督機制[10]。

5 結(jié)語

在德國，關(guān)于礦區(qū)改造的經(jīng)典案例還有作為 IBA 項目的 Fürst Pückler Land、埃姆舍（Emscher Park） 以及Lausitz lake area項目等。每個項目都具有不同特色，需要進行特殊的規(guī)劃與討論，從而更好地協(xié)調(diào)環(huán)境保護、經(jīng)濟發(fā)展與社會公正等問題。由此可見，礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復和再利用是一個十分復雜的系統(tǒng)工程，它不僅需要專業(yè)的生態(tài)修復技術(shù)，更需要法律與制度層面的管理框架，以及保證社會參與和順利運作的規(guī)劃流程，此外還應該在大的區(qū)域背景下看待其修復與再利用。本文作者介紹的4個方面的工作內(nèi)容較為完整地回應了上述問題，這對于實現(xiàn)礦區(qū)生態(tài)修復與合理再利用，促進區(qū)域可持續(xù)發(fā)展以及獲得綜合效益最大化具有重要意義。

注釋(Notes)：

①圖1來源：Hajo Mader，2009；圖2改繪自：Surface Mining， 2003；圖3改繪自：LMBV，2006；圖4改繪自：Vattenfall，2006；圖 5改繪自：TU Freiburg，Klapperich Wolf，2002；圖6改繪自：Vattenfall，2006；圖7來源：Vattenfall，2006； 圖 8、9、11、12來 源：Hajo Mader；圖10來源：孔洞一；圖13來源：LMBV，2006。

Fig. 1 source: HajoMader, 2009; Fig. 2 source: Surface Mining, 2003; Fig. 3 source: LMBV, 2006; Fig. 4 source:Vattenfall, 2006; Fig. 5 source: TU Freiburg, Klapperich Wolf, 2002; Fig. 6 source: Vattenfall, 2006; Fig. 7 source:Vattenfall, 2006; Fig. 8/9/11/12 source: Hajo Mader; Fig. 10 source: Kong Dongyi; Fig. 13 source: LMBV, 2006.

[1]Presse-und Iformationsamt der Bundesregierung(2016):Deutsche Nachhaltigkeits strategie — Neuauflage, Berlin.

[2]Umweltbundesamt(2015): Immer weniger fruchtbare und gesunde B?den, Berlin.

[3]Adel, J.Y. (2009): Integrated quarry rehabilitation strategy for sustainable renaturation in Lebanon; Dissertation,Humboldt Universit?t, Berlin.

[4]Jeremy BIGGS (2008): 3rd European Pond Conservation Network Workshop, València.

[5]Zuordnungswerte (2013): Deponieverordnung,Nieders?chsische Gesellschaftzur Endablagerung von Sonderabfall, Hannover.

[6]BBodSchV(1999): Bundes-Bodenschutz- und Altlastenverordnung, (BGBl. I S. 1554), Berlin.

[7]Ulrich W?stmann(2016): Natürliche Selbstreinigung und Immobilisierung bei sch?dlichen Bodenver?nderungen und Altlasten.

[8]Hermann Remmert(1991): Das Mosaik-Zyklus-Konzept und seine Bedeutungfür den Naturschutz, Laufen/ Salzach.

[9]梁留科，常江，吳次芳，Klaus Borchard. 德國煤礦區(qū)景觀生態(tài)重建、土地復墾及對中國的啟示[J]. 經(jīng)濟地理，2002，22（6）：711-715.

Liang Liuke, Chang Jiang, Wu Cifang, Klaus Borchard.Study on the Ecological Restoration of Landscape in Germany Mining Regions and Reference to China[J].Economic Geography, 2002, 22(6): 711-715.

[10]Frank Sander(2013): Sanierung von Bergbaufolgen Landschaft der Braukohle in Sachsen, Leipzig.

Along with the growing population and the improving living standard in the world, resource on consumption is increasingly larger. Most of such resources are concealed in the earth surface layer,providing energy for growth of animals and plants as well as playing an important role in absorption of carbondioxide and supply of oxygen.Though these resources provide basic conditions for human survival, most people have no awareness of the property of earth surface, just as sensitive as our skin; the earth surface is a highly complex ecosystem composed of various inorganics, soil,water, microorganism, animals and plants, etc.

In Germany, 66ha-land is turning into residential or transportation land everyday, leading to serious loss of natural resources[1]. By 2030,this fi gure will be reduced to 30ha., but there still will be plenty of land being occupied. It seems that people have been used to willfully using land,especially mineral resources, as hands-down free resources - over the past 200 years, exploitation of lignite in Germany, the mining area in historical colonial as well as the centralized excavation in the fast developing China have caused large-area of earth surface demanding urgent reclamation (Figure 1).

"Reclamation" refers to the productive capacity of restoring available cultivated land or pasture land in its original meaning, but now it lays more emphases on making the land restore to natural conservation and self-reliant living state. People also gradually realize that each harm to "earthskin"must be slowly cured through a treatment process; human intervention and reasonable process planning shall also be considered for the reclamation process and exploitation and reuse.Germany has accumulated abundant experience in mining area restoration and transformation,particularly in the successful reclamation of lignite mining area in original East Germany and the transformation project of industrial heritage in Ruhr[2]. By borrowing ideas from the operation mode of restoration and transformation practice of mining area in Germany, this paper will address its main planning process and work contents from the following four aspects by combining speci fi c cases,with a hope of bringing some enlightenment to the ecological reclamation, transformation and reuse practices of current mining area in China. Works on such aspects include: problem assessment and institutional arrangement; legal basis and planned process; reclamation technology and natural process;social participation and functional conversion.

1 Problem assessment and institutional arrangement

As for the reclamation and transformation of abandoned mining area, i.e., a large-scale long-lasting and costly project with large land occupation, the environmental problem in mining area shall be firstly assessed during actual operation; meanwhile, management problems,such as system design and organization structuring,shall be considered. Particularly, in the area with changed land ownership and complex stakeholders,parties concerned shall be organized to negotiate and establish a cooperation platform so as to form specific management organization; moreover,reasonable financing channel, benefit distribution mode, etc. shall be designed.

Since the 1970s, a mass of abandoned mining areas appear in Saxony region in east of Germany due to the exhaustion of lignite resource. In East Germany era, this region produced 3mt lignite every year, whereas the all-year-round exploitation had polluted the underground water and surface runoff in its radiating area and endangered the ecological diversity in mining area (Figure 2).Due to the characteristics of geological structure,many underground aquifers in this region have been cut off or damaged; in addition, the waste water generated by exploitation back flows into underground water and converges into surface runoff, thus causing water system pollution of the whole region. Moreover, opencast working had resulted in large-area of bare soil and rock, and such "abiotic environment" pernicious plate would gradually extend over time until causing vegetation degradation of the whole region. All environmental problems, as mentioned above, shall be assessed and detected at the beginning.

In addition, organization structuring and functional conversion, which also involves the mine field ownership and interest coordination problem, shall also be considered at the beginning of project. The change of political system before and after the German reunification makes the demarcation of reclamation responsibility subjects more complicated: the coal mine in this region was completely state-owned in East Germany period,but belongs to several states and other different interest groups after reunification[3]. Who is hold responsible for the high reclamation expense? To answer this question, a negotiation organization structure shall be established (Figure 3). After interest negotiation and organization collaboration,many interest-related groups finally reach an agreement on jointly sharing reclamation expense.

"LMBV" is a key part in this structure, mainly responsible for coordinating the interests of parties concerned and comprehensively planning the reclamation and reuse plan and progress. Its main tasks are as follows: 1) properly make early ecological and geological assessment; 2) determine the abandoned mining area and that no longer for exploitation; 3) assess the ecological benefit of restored mining area; 4) detect and control water pollution in mining area and its radiating range; 5) restore the vegetation of the bare earth surface in mining area; 6) coordinate the interests of parties concerned in regional planning frame,and form the reuse decision mechanism of mining area after reclamation. Supported by the abovementioned structure, LMVB has finally formed a joint administrative organization[4]led by state governments and elected by interest-related groups through coordinating the interests of parties concerned. This organization has signed "Common Program for Transformation Project in Lignite Mining Area", thus forming a community in legal sense, which protects interests of respective party and jointly promotes the transformation progress in mining area.

2 Legal basis and planned process

The reclamation and transformation planning for lignite mining area in Germany mainly involves laws and regulations on the following three aspects (Figure 4): 1) regional and spatial planning methods; 2) energy policies; 3) various environmental protection laws. Regional and spatial planning method and energy policies codetermine the land use planning and reclamation planning,whereas environmental protection laws determine the special rules of reclamation planning on aspects such as water, vegetation and pollution treatment.Such legal regulations guarantee the smooth implementation of reclamation work through supervising the behaviors of mining companies and collecting relevant taxes; they also realizes the balance between ecological compensation and environmental benefits of miningarea by public participation and reclamation technology[5].

Germany has issued relevant laws and regulations in allusion to environmental reclamation planning of mining area as early as in 1980. The "Regional Planning Law" in 2005 makes the reclamation provisions of lignite mining area more specific,including survey of underground water range and area affected by exploitation, earth surface vegetation protection and restoration, nature and function selection of reused land after reclamation,etc. Klapperich Wolf, Professor from University of Freiburg, has summarized a set of systematic planning research process (Figure 5), specifically including: 1) problem assessment and infrastructure construction: establish environment monitoring point, assessment station, transportation system, technical management and construction management organization; 2) environmental reclamation of mining area: select sampling area to make reclamation technology assessment (e.g.specific water purification and soil reclamation),measure mineral resource value, environmental value and environmental detection mechanism;3) environmental reclamation of radiating area:basically same as that of mining area; 4) protection,restoration and reclamation: building protection,vegetation restoration and habitat recreation;5) functional conversion: discussion on possibility of transformation and reuse.

3 Reclamation technology and natural process

Some study has pointed out that the overall objective of mining area reclamation is to turn the damaged mining area into a site with animate ecological environment and landscape through realizing natural conservation, leisure &sightseeing and earth texture restoration (Figure 6). Its operation contents include forest land and wasteland restoration and conservation, farmland,pasture land or mountain style restoration, water pollution control, etc.; and it may finally delimit the regional ecological control boundary as well as form the vegetation appearance and scenery space consistent with regional earth texture and the processed water puri fi cation system.

Under the joint effect of policy and legal guarantee, environmental awareness awakening among the public and enterprises as well as re fi ned detection and reclamation technologies, at present,mining area reclamation in Germany receives more and more attentions, and its investment in"vegetation restoration", "polluted site treatment"and "water treatment" becomes higher and higher[6].3.1 Water restoration

As for water restoration, firstly, the water in mining area and its surrounding radiating area shall be detected and assessed; then targeted reclamation treatment measures shall be taken according to the detection and assessment result. During diagnostic assessment, whether the surface water and underground water are provided with favorable biological and chemical properties and whether there is any mining area pollutant entering into surface water or underground water shall be fi rstly detected; then whether the substance exceeding the limit comes from mining area pollutant shall be judged; "accountability" for corresponding responsible party shall be implemented. Waste water purification ditch and waste water settling tank may be excavated to protect natural water from pollution by mining area waste water (Figure 7): transmit the mining wastewater in mining area through ditch to the planned lake area for purification treatment, thereby avoiding pollution of surrounding water.

Brown water is a common water pollution problem which disturbs the photosynthesis of submerged plant and causes oxygen deficit and even suffocation of fi sh stocks by impeding their respiration. The reason is that the residual waste water caused by ore exploitation, which contains many minerals but insufficient organic matter and oxygen, is discharged without treatment.Treatment measures include construction of waste water settling tank, arrangement of oxygenation facilities, cultivation of aquatic animals and plants,etc. Therefore, the river shall be twisted as possible so as to create a favorable waterfront habitat for amphibians, reptiles, insects, etc.

Disordered pH value is another common water pollution problem. As shown in Figure 8, the sulfate in settling tank severely exceeds the limit, causing severe acidity of water pH value and the existence of certain heavy metallic salt. Response measures are as follows: 1) inject clean water to neutralize its pH value; 2) calcify and separate sulfate with chemical method; 3) separate the heavy metal composition by water purification device.Experts from various fields may provide guidance in allusion to specific measure[7].

3.2 Vegetation restoration

Vegetation restoration is the key issue of mining area reclamation. Mining activity always generates large-area bare earth surface, which is easily extended without timely reclamation.Therefore, the area of vegetation reclamation is relatively large, and there may be many slopes or rock piles liable to water and soil loss. Meanwhile,the pH value of soil in bare ground always exceeds the limit; therefore, the soil shall be improved fi rstly- i.e. improve the soil adverse to vegetation growth into proper soil, and then select adaptable pioneer tree species and herbaceous plant for cultivation.

To be emphasized, single-structure planting pattern shall be avoided as mush as possible during vegetation restoration. The so-called "unitary planting structure" means single tree species, single diameter at breast height and single planting space(Figure 9). This is common in the current mining area reclamation in China. Its ecological cost is enormous - the capability of resisting diseases and insect pests and severe environment attack is weak, the ecological diversity is too poor to form abundant habitat types. On the contrary, vegetation planting shall comply with the following principles:1) select endemic tree species; 2) avoid linear and square array when planning plant community and species group and intentionally reserve clearance to improve ecological diversity; 3) mutually collocate fast-growing and slow-growing tree species as well as heliophilous and shade-tolerant tree species[8].Meanwhile, self-reclamation of vegetation by natural succession shall be adopted (Figure 10).In many abandoned lands, wild vegetation comes fi rst to immobilize the surface soil, then it gradually becomes abundant vegetation types. Certainly, this is a long-term process.

In addition to the diversity of vegetation types and group structures, attention shall also be paid to establishing natural habitat for animals (e.g. small waters or open dry lands) and considering the ecological relationship with adjacent forest (habitat connection system) during vegetation restoration.For example, Germany suggests to set out a protection area for no production in the mining area under operation. Relative to the over insolation and poor nutrition in mining area, such protection area will preferably enrich the local ecological diversity.

In addition, various garden ornamental plants may be introduced in the reclamation project transformed into leisure & entertainment garden. For example, during the famous Emscher Park Transformation Project, Peter Latz, the Designer, has intentionally reserved the go-space in abandoned mining field and planted various plants. Moreover, sightseeing corridor may also be arranged to carry out scienti fi c popularization,revealing the succession process from herbaceous plant to ligneous plant and re fl ecting the truth of the changing nature to people.

3.3 Soil reclamation and water and soil conservation

Generally, problems such as soil corrosion,water and soil loss, soil acidi fi cation and alkalization,humus reduction, permeability loss, geological looseness of soil base course and single biological species exist in lignite mining area. If effective measures for preventing soil and water loss are unavailable, the ecological reclamation area will become ecological deterioration area under the action of scouring, weathering and deserti fi cation.In allusion to this problem, measures such as earth surface vegetation coverage, terrace-type planting belt, construction of water and soil conservation barrier strip and ligneous plant cultivation for soil fixation can play an important role in water and soil conservation (Figure 11) and controlling the loss of soil nutrient. The land used for secondary ploughing shall be improved more carefully, e.g. add ameliorants to adjust pH value, and add arti fi ciallycultivated humus to enhance soil fertility. The thickness of soil layer under secondary ploughing shall be 2m above, then spread a layer of humusloess cultivation soil(with thickness of 20～50cm)on the restored surface. Then pioneer plants shall be planted to fi x the soil by their root system.

Different reclamation methods may be adopted in allusion to different pollutant types:inorganic pollutant (e.g. heavy metal) may be removed by surfactant or organic solvent; it may also be extracted under high pressure or with compressed gas (e.g. carbon dioxide) as extracting agent, or absorbed through concentration by plants; high-temperature processing is the most common method for organic pollutant (e.g. mineral oil and solvent): organic substance volatilizes into waste gas in the revolving furnace with temperature of 1 100oC, and then is absorbed into filter device after physical sedimentation and biological absorption (e.g. toxic substances such as benzene and chlorinated hydrocarbon)[7].

3.4 Species protection and habitat reclamation

As a result of the enhancement of ecological consciousness, the goal of the German mining restoration has been changed from the agriculture& forestry reclamation to the establishment of leisure land, reconstructing the biological cycles and protecting the species[9]. Species protection and habitat reclamation play a more and more important role in mining area reclamation in current Germany or even in Europe. At present,2% of Germany territory is labeled as wasteland and location for protection of endangered species,and rare species protection areas are established in nature conservation areas and many forest parks. Many abandoned mining areas have become habitats for various wild animals and plants since they are free of interference for a long term, and they shall be utilized in reclamation planning.

Dr. Mader, as a German environmentalist,has taken various measures to increase biological diversity when participating in the ecological reclamation project of quarry in EI Dough mountain area in northeast Algeria. From the France colonization era up totoday, most quarrys in this region have received no arti fi cial reclamation and reuse. As for the wet abandoned quarry under precipice, researchers have selected a proper place to construct a small water pond with natural clay to serve as a habitat for local endangered species such as pleurodeles poireti (Figure 12), so as to ensure their oviposition and incubation in appropriate life cycle.

Moreover, abandoned quarry may also serve as habitat for large birds, such as precipice for raptorial bald eagle and mountain eagle as well as cave for vampire bats. Researcher can design and install some artificial nests, caves or simply fixed wood plates to provide more abundant living environment for birds.

Actually, the ecological restoration for quarry with little environmental pollution, especially the large-area quarrying relic, doesn't need excessive arti fi cial reclamation measures. There is abundant vegetation in rock gaps in quarry, and it may take on natural succession. Take the above-mentioned project as example, a quarry in South Annaba has been free of human intervention for a long period,and now it has formed highly diversi fi ed vegetation types. Dominant species, such as euphorbiakansui,rock juniper, summer coptischinensis, western coptischinensis, olive and holmoak, starts multiplying. Such abundant and diversified plant community habitat is far from human could create!

Finally, attention shall be paid that proper fence prevention measures shall be taken for all"ecological reclamation areas" so as to prevent wild animals (deer or boar, etc.) from attacking the frangible ecological restoration areas. In conclusion, different ecological reclamation technology is adopted for each mining area according to its characteristics. It is obvious that planning and design personnel cannot master all ecological reclamation technologies, but they shall keep learning and mobilize relevant professional personnel in practice. After all, the planner's mission is to coordinate and mobilize various professional knowledge and interest groups so as to settle the problem in an organic and harmonious organizational environment.

4 Social participation and functional conversion

In Germany, reuse of ecological reclamation field in mining area is always based on extensive social participation and discussion. Usually, the discussion will address the following aspects:1) environmental safety; 2) economic bene fi t and land use; 3) protection and shaping of scenery space and style; 4) natural conservation.

Generally, social groups participating in discussion include: 1) government and public interest groups, such as nature protectors,environmental scientist, etc. They mainly appeal for environmental safety and natural ecological protection, and also for improving life quality in mining area, facilitating human's closeness to nature, improving health level, enriching public amusement, etc.; 2) enterprises and developers,who consider more from perspective of economic benefits, hoping that the transformed mining area may profit and have reproduction function, e.g.used as reclamation farmland, economic forest,tourism area or for construction of buildings for renting, etc. 3) cultural scholars and social innovators such as social activists, architects and landscape architects, they hope to maintain the characteristic style of mining area, protect the landscape resource, and transform it into an open space and relic park satisfying the leisure,entertainment and science popularization education demand of citizens.

The above-mentioned different participating groups shall make interest appeal and development prospect in an organized and step-by-step way within a discussion frame. Such discussion mechanism approximately includes three levels(Figure 13): 1) control principle: define the ecological benefit index to be reached after reclamation and form the fi nancial pre-judgement of input/output; 2) project organization and social participation—interest-related parties, such as governments, enterprises, social groups and individuals, are engaged in a heated argument in the fair discussion mechanism, and finally obtain a mutually compromised satisfactory result; meanwhile, issues involving the regional interest coordination are also discussed; 3) scheme implementation: the reuse planning finally determined through discussion is entrusted to specific project implementation organization, and supervision mechanism shall be established[10].

5 Epilogue

In Germany, classic cases of mining area transformation also include IBA projects, i.e. Fürst Pückler Land, Emscher Park, Lausitz lake area project, etc. Each project has its own characteristics and requires special planning and discussion,thereby coordinating the environmental protection,economic development and social justice issues in a better way. It shows that ecological reclamation and reuse of mining area is a very complex system project, it not only requires professional ecological reclamation technology, but also asks for law and system management frame as well as the planned process ensuring social participation and smooth operation; moreover, reclamation and reuse shall also be considered under the general regional background. This paper introduces work contents in four aspects, comprehensively responding to the above problems, and it has great significance on realizing the ecological reclamation and reasonable reuse of mining area, facilitating regional sustainable development and obtaining maximum comprehensive benefits.

Curing the Earth Surface Skin — Theories and Practices of Ecological Restoration and Reclamation of Mining Areas in Germany

(Germany) Hans-Joachim Mader, KONG Dong-yi, CUI Qing-wei＊

In the background of resource crisis and global urbanization process nowadays, the mining lands are just like the scars of earth skin and need careful curing by human beings. As one of the most developed industrial capitalist country in the world, Germany has accumulated rich experience in the field of restoration and regeneration of mining areas, and has made remarkable achievements. This paper introduces some general ideas and operating methods of mining lands’ ecological restoration and reclamation practices in Germany, in hope of providing some references in the managing, planning, designing and engineering practices in China.Based on the main procedure and working content, this paper will introduce the following four aspects: problems assessment& institutional arrangement, legal basis &planning procedure, reclaiming technologies & natural process, social participation & function conversion.

Germany; planning procedure; reclamation technology; social participation; reuse

北京林業(yè)大學科技創(chuàng)新計劃——2015新進教師科研啟動基金項目（編號BLX2015-35）；北京市共建項目專項資助

TU 986

A

1673-1530(2017)08-0030-11

10.14085/j.fjyl.2017.08.0030.11

2017-06-11

修回日期：2017-07-11

Fund Items:Beijing Forestry University Science & Technology Innovation Plan-2015 New Teacher’s Research Start-up Fund Project (No. BLX2015-35); Beijing Joint Construction Special Project Co-finance

（德）漢斯-約阿希姆 馬德爾/1944年生/男/海德堡大學生物學博士，生態(tài)學家，環(huán)境評論家/ 勃蘭登堡州環(huán)境部空間規(guī)劃及自然保護局前局長，勃蘭登堡州自然保護基金會前主席，國際退休專家委員會“環(huán)境高級顧問”

(Germany) Hans-Joachim Mader, who was born in 1944,is doctor of biology at the University of Heidelberg, and an ecologist, environmental commentator. He is former director of Department of Spatial Planning & Natural Protection in Brandenburg Ministry of Environment, former chairmanof Brandenburg State Conservation Foundation, senior advisor of the International Rescue Expert Committee (SES).

孔洞一/1981年生/男/河南洛陽人/德國魏瑪包豪斯大學城市化研究在讀博士研究生，“風景園林新青年”網(wǎng)站主編/研究方向為文化景觀

KONG Dong-yi, who was born in 1981 in Luoyang, Henan province, is a Ph.D. candidate of urbanization studies at Bauhaus University Weimar, main-editor of “Youth Landscape Architecture” NPO Organization. His research focuses on cultural landscape.

崔慶偉/1985年生/男/山東東明人/博士/北京林業(yè)大學園林學院講師/研究方向為礦業(yè)景觀與風景園林規(guī)劃設(shè)計理論（北京100083）

郵箱（Corresponding author Email）：qingweicui@bjfu.edu.cn

CUI Qing-wei, who was born in 1985 in Dongming, Shandong province, holding doctor degree, is an assistant professor in the School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University. His research focuses on mining landscape and landscape architectural planning and design theory (Beijing 100083).

（編輯 / 任京燕）