Cross－cultural Study on the Interpersonal Metaphor of the Sino － US Diplomatic Discourse〔*〕

Wang Yan

(School of English University of International Business and Economics，Beijing 100029)

Ⅰ.Introduction

Systemic functional linguistics pays great attention to the study on grammatical metaphor，which has become the hot topic among researchers since Halliday first raised this concept.Discourse analysis is most interested in interpersonal metaphor among the three grammatical metaphors(conceptual metaphor，interpersonal metaphor and textual metaphor).However，it has not yet drawn enough attention to apply this concept to the professional discourse analysis.

As a professional discourse text，diplomatic discourse has distinguished features of language use and reflects the ideological standpoint of government.Routing press conference is held in diplomatic service so as to maintain the dialogue between the government and public.This special type of diplomatic discourse attaches great importance to the construction of interpersonal significance and shows social relations in this way.Foreign Ministry spokesmen and reporters need to understand and effectively apply the language implementation means of interpersonal significance in order to safeguard the cooperative relation between the government and media.

The corpus of this paper comes from the daily routing press conference issued on the official websites of China’s Foreign Ministry and the US State Council.This paper stresses the usage of interpersonal metaphor in press conference，and analyzes how to construct interpersonal significance by means of metaphor of mode and metaphor of modality.The comparative study between China and the US has further revealed the different linguistic forms and functions in different cultural backgrounds.

Ⅱ.Concept of interpersonal metaphor

Grammatical metaphor is different from the metaphor in the traditional sense，and instead，it refers to the difference between the congruent expression and non-congruent expression.Interpersonal function is realized by the system of mood and modality in systemic functional linguistics，on which foundation we can identify two major interpersonal metaphors:metaphor of mood and metaphor of modality.

Mood expresses linguistic function，which can be realized by a substantial subject.in metaphor of mood，subject or proposal is not a simple sentence，but a projecting clause.Similar to metaphor of mood，grammatical deviation in metaphor of modality is also based on the semantic relation of projecting clause.In congruent expression，modal meaning is expressed by the modality of sentence，while in metaphor of modality，modal meaning is expressed by the non- congruent expression of projecting clause.

Ⅲ.Interpersonal grammar analysis of the discourse during the routine press conference

In this part，cross-cultural analysis will be made on the usage of metaphor of mood and metaphor of modality in American and British press conference discourse，and examples will be given to illustrate the non-congruent expression of interpersonal significance in the corpus.

1.Metaphor of mood

Four major speech functions and their standard expression forms have been classified in systemic functional linguistics:statement is used to give information，which is expressed by declarative sentences;inquiry is used to ask for information，which is expressed by interrogative sentences;order is used to ask for action，which is expressed by imperative sentences;offering is used to meet others’need，which can be expressed in various forms.Generally speaking，the four speech functions are realized by relevant congruent mood.They will be metaphorical expression when realized by non-congruent expression，namely grammatical metaphor in systemic functional linguistics.

The following examples selected from the routing press conference can be used to illustrate the expression form of metaphor of mood.(S refers to the Foreign Ministry spokesmen and R refers to the reporters).

(1)Realizing“statement”by“interrogative sentences”:

1a.R:Don’t you think the U.S.is following double standards?

The congruent form of this sentence should be:The U.S.is following double standards.

1b.S:你不覺得越菲一起搞這種小動(dòng)作，充其量就是一場(chǎng)拙劣的鬧劇嗎?

Congruent form:越菲一起搞這種小動(dòng)作，充其量就是一場(chǎng)拙劣的鬧劇。

(2)Realizing“questioning”by“declarative sentences”:

2a.R:I’m wondering if the U.S.is planning some kind of resolution，and if the U.S.does support an inquiry for war crimes.

Congruent form:Is the U.S.planning some kind of resolution，and does the U.S.support an inquiry for war crimes?

2b.S:我不知道澳大利亞媒體對(duì)中方的指責(zé)依據(jù)何在。

Congruent form:澳大利亞媒體對(duì)中方的指責(zé)依據(jù)何在?

(3)Realizing“questioning”by“imperative sentences”:

3a.R:Please tell me if this is correct– a U.S.consular officer in an embassy abroad would not put a valid visa into a fake passport.

Congruent form:Is it correct that a U.S.consular officer in an embassy abroad would not put a valid visa into a fake passport?

3b.R:請(qǐng)介紹近日中方圍繞搜尋馬航失聯(lián)客機(jī)所做工作。

Congruent form:近日中方圍繞搜尋馬航失聯(lián)客機(jī)做了哪些工作?

(4)Realizing“order”by“interrogative sentences”:

4a.R:Can you please elaborate a little bit on this package that U.S.stated you are ready to support?

Congruent form:Please elaborate a little bit on this package that U.S.stated you are ready to support.

4b.R:能否進(jìn)一步介紹這次訪問雙方會(huì)晤的情況?

Congruent form:請(qǐng)進(jìn)一步介紹這次訪問雙方會(huì)晤的情況。

(5)Realizing“order”by“declarative sentences”:通過“陳述句”實(shí)現(xiàn)的“命令”:

5a.R:If you please have a comment on those two points，I would appreciate it.

Congruent:Please make a comment on those two points.

5b.S:我們希望有關(guān)各方保持克制，不采取相互刺激的舉措。

Congruent form:有關(guān)各方要保持克制，不采取相互刺激的舉措。

(6)Modal“offering”as“commitment”:

6a.S:I can assure you we will remain focused on that goal.

Congruent form:We will remain focused on that goal.

6b.S:我相信有關(guān)部門會(huì)及時(shí)公布結(jié)果。

Congruent form:有關(guān)部門一定會(huì)及時(shí)公布結(jié)果的。

These examples display how metaphorical expression is applied by spokesmen and reporters to realize the four speech functions and to establish and maintain interpersonal relations.

In the context of press conference，spokesmen represent the government，and reporters represent media and public.Both sides want to maintain a harmonious relation with the other，therefore，face-threatening acts，such as order，tend to be expressed by questions or declarative sentences，instead of imperative sentences.

However，in different cultural backgrounds，due to the difference between social distance and power relations of spokesmen and reporters，the degree of emphasizing mood also varies.

2.Metaphor of modality

Modality is defined as a degree between positivity and negativity in systemic functional linguistics.Modal system includes modality in propositions and modality in proposals.There are four orientations which determine the implementation of each modality(subjective and clear，subjective and non-clear，objective and non-clear and objective and clear).Modal meaning is usually realized by the modal elements of the sentences.Metaphorical expression refers to the specific implementation of modal meaning.That is to say，the view of speakers is realized by a projecting clause in the clause structure.

The following are examples of metaphor of modality:

(7)modality:Possibility(subjective and clear)

7a.S:I think that’s something the Secretary will continue to be focused on.

Congruent form:That might be something the Secretary will continue to be focused on.

7b.S:我們認(rèn)為這次會(huì)晤必將有力推動(dòng)中韓關(guān)系發(fā)展。

Congruent form:這次會(huì)晤必將有力推動(dòng)中韓關(guān)系發(fā)展。

(8)modality:Possibility(objective and clear)

8a.S:It’s possible that the two sides may mutually agree to extend things moving forward.

Congruent form:The two sides may mutually agree to extend things moving forward.

8b.R:日本政府有可能發(fā)表新的談話。

Congruent form:日本政府將會(huì)發(fā)表新的談話。

(9)modality:Usualness(objective and clear)

9a.S:It’s rare that any briefing everybody participates in.

Congruent form:People rarely participate in all briefings.

9b.S:中國(guó)海軍艦艇在相關(guān)海域進(jìn)行例行巡邏是正當(dāng)合法的，很正常。

Congruent form:中國(guó)海軍艦艇在相關(guān)海域正常地進(jìn)行例行巡邏是正當(dāng)合法的。

(10)modality:Obligation(subjective and clear)

10a.S:I would have you – suggest you talk to DOD about that.

Congruent form:You should talk to DOD about that.

10b.S:建議你查閱一下相關(guān)消息。

Congruent form:你應(yīng)該查閱一下相關(guān)消息。

Modal system expresses the field between“yes”and“no”.Speakers can adopt various strategies to stress their point of views，or make it look different from personal ideas.In routing press conference，spokesmen and reporters have obligations and rights.When they are sure about the information or views，they tend to express them by modal congruent form.But when it comes to risks and obligations，they tend to adopt metaphor of modality.American spokesmen tend to use the sentence pattern of“I think…”，suggesting that their words do not represent the standpoint of the government.By contrast，Chinese spokesmen tend to adopt“we”to show government’s standpoint，which implies the different attitudes towards individualism and collectivism in the two cultures.

Ⅳ.Conclusion

Clear definition of grammatical metaphor is given in systemic functional linguistics，and it is easy to identify typical examples.However，it is still difficult to distinguish congruent expression from metaphoric expression in discourse.The classification of grammatical metaphor is still fussy and uncertain，and besides，there are differences concerning this concept in different languages and cultures.The application of interpersonal metaphor to the discourse analysis of routing press conference is beneficial to the exploration of the strategic expression of diplomatic discourse and the influence exerted by cultural and ideological mode on this professional discourse.The comparative analysis reveals that the application of interpersonal grammatical metaphor in the routing press conference shares some resemblance，which has something to do with globalization and industrial standards of reporters and diplomatists.Communication mode tends to be determined by the organizational aims and procedures of the routing press conference.

Notes:

〔1〕Halliday，M.A.K.，An Introduction to Functional Grammar(2nd ed)，London:Arnold，1994.

〔2〕Halliday，M.A.K.＆ Matthiessen，C.M.I.M.，An Introduction to Functional Grammar(3rd ed.)，London:Arnold，2004.

〔3〕Searle，J.R.Indirect speech acts.In Cole，P.＆ Morgan，J.L.(ed.)，Syntax and Semantics，Vol 3，Speech Acts，New York:Academic Press，1975，pp.59-82.

〔4〕Brown，P.＆ Levinson，S.C.，Politeness:Some Universals in Language Use，Cambridge:Cambridge University Press，1987.