ISUOG
湖北省婦幼保健院 趙勝 翻譯
ISUOG胎兒心臟超聲檢查指南(修訂版)
ISUOG
湖北省婦幼保健院 趙勝 翻譯
臨床標(biāo)準(zhǔn)委員會(huì)
國際婦產(chǎn)超聲協(xié)會(huì)(ISUOG)是一家致力于促進(jìn)婦產(chǎn)科影像安全應(yīng)用及高質(zhì)教育的科學(xué)機(jī)構(gòu)。ISUOG臨床標(biāo)準(zhǔn)委員會(huì)(CSC)專職負(fù)責(zé)起草影像診斷的臨床應(yīng)用指南,發(fā)表ISUOG認(rèn)定當(dāng)前最優(yōu)秀的操作指南。盡管ISUOG盡最大努力確保指南發(fā)表時(shí)是準(zhǔn)確的,但是ISUOG及其雇員不為該指南的任何錯(cuò)誤或誤導(dǎo)數(shù)據(jù)負(fù)責(zé)。CSC并非要確立一個(gè)法律標(biāo)準(zhǔn),任何個(gè)人及組織都可以在ISUOG許可下自由發(fā)表臨床操作指南。(info@isuog.org)
本文件包括過去ISUOG發(fā)表過的中孕期胎兒心臟超聲檢查指南[1]的修訂版及當(dāng)前產(chǎn)前診斷先天性心臟病(CHD)的最新知識(shí)。參考循證醫(yī)學(xué)的結(jié)果及其他指南,這個(gè)新的指南將心臟流出道切面增加到原來僅有四腔心切面的常規(guī)篩查內(nèi)容之中[2-5]。
先天性心臟病是導(dǎo)致兒童死亡的首要原因,發(fā)生率約為4‰~13‰[6-8]。1950~1994年期間,約42%報(bào)告至WTO的兒童死亡病例是由于心臟畸形導(dǎo)致的[9]。結(jié)構(gòu)性心臟異常也是產(chǎn)前超聲診斷中最容易漏診的畸形之一[10,11]。雖然產(chǎn)前診斷出先天性心臟病可以改善部分心臟畸形的預(yù)后[12-16],但是不同機(jī)構(gòu)的產(chǎn)前診出率差異很大[17]。這些差異部分是由于檢查者經(jīng)驗(yàn)、孕婦肥胖、探頭頻率、腹部瘢痕、孕周、羊水量以及胎位不同所造成的[18,19]。醫(yī)學(xué)繼續(xù)教育以及經(jīng)常與胎兒心臟超聲專家交流則有助于提高診斷水平[8,20]。例如,英國北部一所醫(yī)療機(jī)構(gòu)在經(jīng)歷了2年系統(tǒng)培訓(xùn)后,主要心臟畸形檢出率提高了一倍[21]。
胎兒心臟超聲檢查的目的是在中孕期最大限度地發(fā)現(xiàn)胎兒心臟畸形[22]。這個(gè)指南可用于低危人群中的心臟畸形篩查[23-25],可幫助識(shí)別基因綜合征,并為產(chǎn)前咨詢、產(chǎn)科處理及多中心合作治療提供臨床資料。如果懷疑心臟畸形,應(yīng)該進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)的胎兒心臟超聲檢查[26]。
盡管四腔心切面和流出道切面已經(jīng)廣為人知,檢查者仍應(yīng)知道影響檢查準(zhǔn)確性的主要因素[27-29]。通過以下方法可以明顯提高檢出率:認(rèn)識(shí)到四腔心切面不僅僅是計(jì)數(shù)心腔的數(shù)目,了解到部分先天性心臟病在晚孕期才能被發(fā)現(xiàn),知道部分特殊類型的先天性心臟?。ㄈ绱髣?dòng)脈轉(zhuǎn)位、主動(dòng)脈縮窄)四腔心切面是正常的。四腔心切面加上流出道切面是改善先天性心臟病檢出率的重要方法。
胎兒心臟檢查的最佳時(shí)間是孕18~22周,部分心臟結(jié)構(gòu)需要到孕22周以后才能清晰顯示。部分心臟畸形可能在早孕晚期或中孕早期被發(fā)現(xiàn),特別是同期已發(fā)現(xiàn)頸項(xiàng)透明層增厚[30-35]。盡管多數(shù)孕婦要求盡早知道胎兒是否患有先天性心臟病,但是通常在孕20~22周才能診斷先天性心臟病,此后無須再復(fù)查[36]。
4.1 超聲探頭 高頻探頭可以提高分辨率,但是會(huì)減低穿透力。在了解分辨率與探測(cè)深度的相關(guān)關(guān)系后,盡量選擇高頻率的探頭。諧波可以改善圖像,特別是晚孕期腹壁厚的孕婦[37]。
4.2 圖像參數(shù) 二維圖像始終是胎兒心臟檢查的基礎(chǔ)。應(yīng)注意調(diào)整儀器設(shè)置保證高幀頻、高對(duì)比度、高分辨率,調(diào)低疊加,只用一個(gè)焦點(diǎn),盡量采用小視野成像。
4.3 放大及視頻回放 應(yīng)盡量放大圖像,使心臟占據(jù)整個(gè)圖像的1/3~1/2。使用視頻回放功能實(shí)時(shí)顯示正常心臟結(jié)構(gòu),確認(rèn)整個(gè)心動(dòng)周期中瓣膜的運(yùn)動(dòng)是否正常。圖像放大和視頻回放有助于識(shí)別心臟畸形。
根據(jù)近期文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道的結(jié)果,流出道切面已被加入到胎兒心臟超聲檢查范疇之內(nèi)[38-46]。
5.1 四腔心切面 四腔心切面不僅僅是計(jì)數(shù)胎兒心腔的數(shù)目,表1及圖1、2包含了四腔心需要觀察的主要內(nèi)容。首先應(yīng)該確定胎兒的左右方位,從而判斷心臟的位置是否正常,胃泡和心臟是否均位于左側(cè)。正常心臟大小不超過胸腔橫斷面積的1/3。心臟周圍有時(shí)可見窄的環(huán)形低回聲區(qū),容易被誤認(rèn)為是心包積液[47,48]。
心臟主要位于左側(cè)胸腔,心軸45°±20°[49](圖1)。即使四腔心顯示不滿意,也應(yīng)該重點(diǎn)觀察心軸及心臟位置[50]。發(fā)現(xiàn)心臟或胃泡不在左側(cè)時(shí),應(yīng)懷疑內(nèi)臟位置異常。心軸異常時(shí)心臟畸形的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增高,特別是流出道畸形,并與染色體異常有關(guān)。膈疝、胸腔占位病變?nèi)绶文蚁倭鰳踊纬3?dǎo)致心臟位置異常,肺發(fā)育不良或肺缺如也可引起心臟位置異常。心軸左偏也可能是由于腹裂或臍膨出造成的。
表1 胎兒內(nèi)臟位置關(guān)系及四腔心切面觀察內(nèi)容
圖1 心臟切面,a.胎兒腹部橫切面確定內(nèi)臟位置關(guān)系,確定胎兒左右方位后,胃泡及降主動(dòng)脈應(yīng)位于左側(cè),下腔靜脈位于右側(cè)。臍靜脈可顯示。b.心臟位置和心軸:心臟大部分位于左側(cè),心軸45°±20°。LA:左房;LV:左室;RA:右房;RV:右室
正常心率為120~160次/分。正常中孕期胎兒可出現(xiàn)暫時(shí)性輕微心動(dòng)過緩。持續(xù)性心動(dòng)過緩,特別是心率低于110次/分,需要?jiǎng)討B(tài)觀察排除房室傳導(dǎo)阻滯[51]。胎兒缺氧可引起晚孕期重復(fù)出現(xiàn)的胎兒心率減慢。偶然出現(xiàn)的早搏通常與結(jié)構(gòu)性先天性心臟病無關(guān),屬于良性表現(xiàn)并可自發(fā)緩解。然而,部分病例可發(fā)展成有臨床意義的心律失常,需要進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖檢查[52-54]。輕度心動(dòng)過速(>160次/分)可能是由于胎動(dòng)引起的。持續(xù)性心動(dòng)過速(>180次/分)則需要進(jìn)一步檢查排除胎兒缺氧或嚴(yán)重的心律失常[55]。
左右心房大小相近,卵圓孔瓣朝左房開放。應(yīng)顯示房間隔下部及原發(fā)隔。心臟十字交叉結(jié)構(gòu)由房間隔下部、室間隔上部、左右房室瓣構(gòu)成??梢姺戊o脈回流到左心房,至少應(yīng)顯示兩支肺靜脈。
右室心尖部可顯示節(jié)制索,是判斷形態(tài)學(xué)右室的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。左室心尖部光滑,構(gòu)成心尖大部分。左右心室大小一致,無心肌肥厚。晚孕期可出現(xiàn)輕度心室大小不對(duì)稱,如果出現(xiàn)重度心室大小不對(duì)稱,應(yīng)進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)胎兒心臟超聲檢查[56],排除左心梗阻病變?nèi)缰鲃?dòng)脈縮窄、左心發(fā)育不良綜合征等[57,58]。
從心尖部至十字交叉處詳細(xì)檢查室間隔,排除室間隔缺損,檢查時(shí)最好使聲束與室間隔垂直。當(dāng)聲束與室間隔平行時(shí),有可能出現(xiàn)回聲失落導(dǎo)致的室間隔缺損假象。受儀器分辨率、胎兒大小及胎位的影響,小的室間隔缺損(1~2mm)常常很難檢出。但是,這種小的室缺臨床意義有限,常在宮內(nèi)自行愈合[59,60]。
左側(cè)二尖瓣、右側(cè)三尖瓣回聲纖細(xì),啟閉正常。三尖瓣隔瓣附著點(diǎn)較二尖瓣附著點(diǎn)更靠近心尖部。房室瓣關(guān)系異常常常提示心臟異常如心內(nèi)膜墊缺損。
圖2 四腔心切面,正常中孕期胎兒心臟不超過胸腔1/3,左右心大小及心肌厚度相近,卵圓孔瓣飄向左房,十字交叉結(jié)構(gòu)可見。通過識(shí)別節(jié)制索和三尖瓣隔瓣附著點(diǎn)可以確定形態(tài)學(xué)右心室。D.Aorta:降主動(dòng)脈;L:左;LA:左房;LV:左室;R:右;RA:右房
5.2 流出道切面 左右室流出道切面已被加入到胎兒心臟超聲檢查規(guī)范之中。大動(dòng)脈與心室的連接關(guān)系、兩條大動(dòng)脈的大小和位置關(guān)系、半月瓣的開放都是觀察重點(diǎn)。如果不能確定正常關(guān)系,應(yīng)建議做系統(tǒng)胎兒心臟超聲檢查。
兩條大動(dòng)脈應(yīng)該大小相近,它們與心室相連的部位呈交叉關(guān)系。一項(xiàng)針對(duì)18000名胎兒的產(chǎn)科研究[61],在四腔心切面基礎(chǔ)上增加流出道切面,納入到30分鐘的檢查之內(nèi)。多數(shù)檢查(93%)滿意地顯示了四腔心和流出道。4.2%未顯示左室流出道,1.6%未顯示右室流出道,1.3%未顯示左室流出道及右室流出道。
流出道切面還包括三血管切面及三血管-氣管切面。一項(xiàng)包括3000位低危孕婦的研究將三血管切面和三血管-氣管切面加入到常規(guī)篩查之中,平均約2分鐘(135s;SD,20s)可獲得上述切面。但是也有1/3的胎兒因?yàn)榧怪谇胺蕉七t15-20分鐘再繼續(xù)檢查[46]。
觀察流出道切面可增加主要心臟畸形的檢出率[20,40,42,62,63]。四腔心切面加流出道切面后能識(shí)別圓錐動(dòng)脈干異常如法洛四聯(lián)癥、大動(dòng)脈轉(zhuǎn)位、右室雙出口以及永存動(dòng)脈干[43-46,64-69]。
5.2.1 超聲技術(shù) 從胎兒腹圍橫切面向頭側(cè)移動(dòng)可依次顯示左室流出道、右室流出道、三血管以及三血管氣管切面[70],多數(shù)情況下容易獲得上述切面(圖3)。
圖3 胎兒心臟超聲檢查的五個(gè)重要切面,彩圖顯示氣管(Tr)、心臟和大動(dòng)脈、肝臟和胃泡,以及五個(gè)切面的具體方位。Ⅰ.最足側(cè)的平面,顯示胎兒胃泡(St)、降主動(dòng)脈(d Ao)、脊柱(Sp)和肝臟(Li);Ⅱ.四腔心切面,顯示右、左心室(RV,LV)、心房(RA,LA)、卵圓孔(FO)和肺靜脈(PV);Ⅲ.左室流出道切面,顯示主動(dòng)脈根部(Ao)、LV、RV、LA和RA;Ⅳ.稍向頭側(cè)偏斜獲得右室流出道切面,顯示主肺動(dòng)脈(MPA)及左肺動(dòng)脈(LPA)、右肺動(dòng)脈(RPA);Ⅴ.三血管和氣管切面,顯示上腔靜脈(SVC)、肺動(dòng)脈(PA)、動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管(DA)、主動(dòng)脈橫弓和氣管(Tr)。IVC:下腔靜脈
獲得四腔心切面后,向頭側(cè)偏斜探頭可獲得左右室流出道切面(圖4),顯示主動(dòng)脈與肺動(dòng)脈的交叉關(guān)系。肺動(dòng)脈分叉可顯示。另外,也可采用其他方式。獲得四腔心切面后,將探頭旋轉(zhuǎn)朝向胎兒右肩部,當(dāng)聲束與室間隔垂直時(shí)容易顯示左室流出道及主動(dòng)脈與室間隔的連續(xù)關(guān)系,這個(gè)切面也可顯示整個(gè)升主動(dòng)脈。獲得左室流出道切面后,探頭繼續(xù)向頭側(cè)傾斜可獲得右室流出道切面。
繼續(xù)向頭側(cè)傾斜可獲得三血管和三血管氣管切面,顯示主動(dòng)脈、肺動(dòng)脈和上腔靜脈,主動(dòng)脈弓和動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管弓也可顯示[64-67]。
圖4 四腔心切面,向頭側(cè)偏斜依次獲得左室流出道(LVOT),右室流出道(RVOT),三血管(3V)和三血管氣管(3VT)切面
5.2.2 左室流出道切面 左室流出道切面確定主動(dòng)脈與左心室相連(圖5),主動(dòng)脈前壁和室間隔存在延續(xù)關(guān)系。主動(dòng)脈瓣纖細(xì)??勺粉欀鲃?dòng)脈至主動(dòng)脈弓及其頭臂分支。主動(dòng)脈弓切面并不包含在胎兒心臟檢查切面之內(nèi)。左室流出道切面可幫助發(fā)現(xiàn)流出道型室間隔缺損以及圓錐動(dòng)脈干異常,通常這些異常的四腔心切面正常。
圖5 左室流出道(LVOT)切面,顯示左室(LV)與主動(dòng)脈相連,注意觀察室間隔與主動(dòng)脈前壁的連續(xù)關(guān)系,主動(dòng)脈瓣纖細(xì),開放(a)及關(guān)閉(b)。D.Aorta:降主動(dòng)脈;L:左;LA:左房;LV:左室;R:右;RA:右房
5.2.3 右室流出道切面 右室流出道顯示右室與肺動(dòng)脈相連(圖6),肺動(dòng)脈位于升主動(dòng)脈的左后方。胎兒期肺動(dòng)脈較主動(dòng)脈稍寬,與主動(dòng)脈呈交叉關(guān)系。上腔靜脈位于主動(dòng)脈右側(cè)。這個(gè)切面與三血管切面相似[64]。
肺動(dòng)脈瓣纖細(xì),肺動(dòng)脈發(fā)出后立即分出左右肺動(dòng)脈,先發(fā)出右肺動(dòng)脈然后發(fā)出左肺動(dòng)脈。由于胎位影響,有時(shí)難以獲得這個(gè)切面。肺動(dòng)脈向左側(cè)延續(xù)為動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管,與降主動(dòng)脈相連。
圖6 右室流出道切面,顯示肺動(dòng)脈(PA)與右室(RV)相連。肺動(dòng)脈與主動(dòng)脈呈交叉關(guān)系,肺動(dòng)脈瓣纖細(xì)。(a)顯示肺動(dòng)脈及其分叉,肺動(dòng)脈瓣關(guān)閉;(b)顯示右肺動(dòng)脈及動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管。D.Aorta:降主動(dòng)脈;L:左;LPA:左肺動(dòng)脈;R:右;SVC:上腔靜脈
5.2.4 三血管及三血管氣管切面 盡管有時(shí)難以獲得三血管及三血管氣管切面,它們?nèi)詰?yīng)被加入到常規(guī)胎兒心臟檢查之中。Yoo等[64]曾經(jīng)詳細(xì)描述過三血管切面(圖7)。從左至右依次為肺動(dòng)脈、主動(dòng)脈和上腔靜脈;肺動(dòng)脈最靠前,下腔靜脈最靠后;肺動(dòng)脈、主動(dòng)脈、下腔靜脈內(nèi)徑依次變小。部分心臟畸形如完全性大動(dòng)脈轉(zhuǎn)位、法洛四聯(lián)癥、肺動(dòng)脈閉鎖合并完整室間隔,四腔心切面正常,但是三血管切面異常。Yagel等[67]隨后增加了三血管氣管切面,較三血管切面更靠近頭側(cè),可顯示主動(dòng)脈弓與氣管的位置關(guān)系,氣管顯示為環(huán)狀無回聲區(qū)周邊圍繞強(qiáng)回聲。動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管和主動(dòng)脈弓位于氣管左側(cè)呈“V”型匯入降主動(dòng)脈(圖8)。主動(dòng)脈弓較動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管弓更靠近頭側(cè)。三血管氣管切面可幫助發(fā)現(xiàn)主動(dòng)脈縮窄、右位主動(dòng)脈弓、雙主動(dòng)脈弓及血管環(huán)。
圖7
圖8
盡管本指南不包含彩色多普勒,但是我們鼓勵(lì)熟悉并使用彩色多普勒[71]。彩色多普勒血流顯像是胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖的組成部分,它的診斷作用不應(yīng)被低估。如果檢查者熟悉,也可在胎兒心臟超聲檢查中使用。彩色多普勒血流顯像有助于識(shí)別心臟結(jié)構(gòu)異常,顯示異常血流信號(hào)。在肥胖的孕婦及低危人群中使用,可以提高診出率[46,73]。
調(diào)節(jié)彩色多普勒設(shè)置包括縮小感興趣區(qū),提高幀頻,降低彩色疊加,合適的增益以顯示經(jīng)過瓣膜和血管的血流。
胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖
一旦懷疑先天性心臟病,應(yīng)進(jìn)行胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖檢查。胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖的檢查內(nèi)容曾被發(fā)表過[26],但不在本指南之內(nèi)。相當(dāng)一部分先天性心臟病胎兒并未合并高危因素或心外畸形[63],因此胎兒心臟超聲檢查非常重要。應(yīng)注意掌握胎兒心臟檢查的適應(yīng)征[74],例如,孕11~14周頸項(xiàng)透明層增厚是胎兒心臟檢查的適應(yīng)征,即使隨后頸項(xiàng)透明層厚度降低到正常范圍內(nèi)[75-78]。
胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖檢查應(yīng)由熟悉產(chǎn)前診斷先天性心臟病的專業(yè)人員進(jìn)行,內(nèi)容包含內(nèi)臟位置關(guān)系、體靜脈及肺靜脈回流、卵圓孔瓣活動(dòng)方向、房室連接、心室大動(dòng)脈連接、大動(dòng)脈位置關(guān)系和主動(dòng)脈弓、動(dòng)脈導(dǎo)管弓。
其他超聲技術(shù)也可用于研究胎兒心臟。如通過血流速度識(shí)別通過瓣膜和心腔的異常血流;M型超聲分析心臟節(jié)律、心室功能和心肌厚度;組織多普勒和容積成像也可用于胎兒心臟解剖及功能的分析。4D胎兒超聲心動(dòng)圖在診斷復(fù)雜先天性心臟病如圓錐動(dòng)脈干異常、主動(dòng)脈弓異常、肺靜脈回流異常中特別有幫助[79-81]。此外,斑點(diǎn)追蹤技術(shù)也開始應(yīng)用于評(píng)價(jià)胎兒心臟功能。
指南起草人員
J.S.Carvalho,Royal Brompton Hospital,London,UK;Fetal Medicine Unit,St George’s Hospital&St George’s University of London,London,UK
L.D.Allan,Harris Birthright Research Centre for Fetal Medicine,King’s College Hospital,London,UK
R.Chaoui,Center for Prenatal Diagnosis and Human Genetics,F(xiàn)riedrichstrasse 147,Berlin,Germany
J.A.Copel,Obstetrics,Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences,Yale University School of Medicine,New Haven,CT,USA
G.R.De Vore,F(xiàn)etal Diagnostic Center,South Fair Oaks Ave,Pasadena,CA,USA;Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA,Los Angeles,CA,USA
K.Hecher,Department of Obstetrics and Fetal Medicine,University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf,Hamburg,Germany
W.Lee,Texas Children’s Pavilion for Women,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Baylor College of Medicine,Houston,TX,USA
H.Munoz,F(xiàn)etal Medicine Unit,Obstetric&Gynecology Department,University of Chile,Santiago,Chile;Clinica las Condes,Santiago,Chile
D.Paladini,F(xiàn)etal Medicine and Cardiology Unit,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,University Federico II of Naples,Naples,Italy
B.Tutschek,Center for Fetal Medicine and Gynecological Ultrasound,Basel,Switzerland;Medical Faculty,Heinrich Heine University,D¨usseldorf,Germany
S.Yagel,Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Centers,Jerusalem,Israel
[1]Cardiac screening examination of the fetus:guidelines for performing the‘basic’and‘extended basic’cardiac scan[J]. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2006,27:107-113.
[2]Antenatal care:routine care for the healthy pregnant woman. http://www.nice.org.uk/CG062[Accessed 23 October 2011].
[3]18+0 to 20+6weeks fetal anomaly scan-National standards and guidance for England 2010.http://fetalanomaly.screening.nhs.uk/standardsandpolicies2010[Accessed 26 November 2011].
[4]Ultrasound Screening:Supplement to Ultrasound Screening for Fetal Abnormalities.http://www.rcog.org.uk/print/womenshealth/clinical-guidance/ultrasound-screening RCOG2011[Accessed 27 November 2011].
[5]Israel Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. http://www.isuog.org.il/main/siteNew/?page=&action=sid Link&stld=301[Accessed 6 February 2012].
[6]Ferencz C,Rubin JD,McCarter RJ,et al.Congenital heart disease:prevalence at livebirth.The Baltimore-Washington Infant Study[J].Am J Epidemiol,1985,121:31-36.
[7]Meberg A,Otterstad JE,F(xiàn)roland G,et al.Outcome of congenital heart defects--a population-based study[J].Acta Paediatr,2000,89:1344-1351.
[8]Cuneo BF,Curran LF,Davis N,et al.Trends in prenatal diagnosis of critical cardiac defects in an integrated obstetric and pediatric cardiac imaging center[J].J Perinatol,2004,24: 674-678.
[9]Rosano A,Botto LD,Botting B,et al.Infant mortality and congenital anomalies from 1950 to 1994:an international perspective[J].J Epidemiol Community Health,2000;54:660-666.
[10]Crane JP,LeFevre ML,Winborn RC,et al.A randomized trial of prenatal ultrasonographic screening:impact on the detection,management,and outcome of anomalous fetuses. The RADIUS Study Group[J].Am J Obstet Gynecol,1994,171:392-399.
[11]Abu-Harb M,Hey E,Wren C.Death in infancy from unrecognized congenital heart disease[J].Arch Dis Child,1994,71:3-7.
[12]Bonnet D,Coltri A,Butera G,et al.Detection of transposition of the great arteries in fetuses reduces neonatal morbidity and mortality[J].Circulation,1999,99:916-918.
[13]Tworetzky W,McElhinney DB,Reddy VM,et al.Improved surgical outcome after fetal diagnosis of hypoplastic left heart syndrome[J].Circulation,2001,103:1269-1273.
[14]Andrews R,Tulloh R,Sharland G,et al.Outcome of staged reconstructive surgery for hypoplastic left heart syndrome following antenatal diagnosis[J].Arch Dis Child,2001,85:474-477.
[15]Franklin O,Burch M,Manning N,Sleeman K,et al.Prenatal diagnosis of coarctation of the aorta improves survival and reduces morbidity[J].Heart,2002,87:67-69.
[16]Tworetzky W,Wilkins-Haug L,Jennings RW,et al.Balloon dilation of severe aortic stenosis in the fetus:potential for prevention of hypoplastic left heart syndrome:candidate selection,technique,and results of successful intervention[J].Circulation,2004,110:2125-2131.
[17]Simpson LL.Screening for congenital heart disease[J].Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am,2004,31:51-59.
[18]DeVore GR,Medearis AL,Bear MB,et al.Fetal echocardiography:factors that influence imaging of the fetal heart during the second trimester of pregnancy[J].J Ultrasound Med,1993,12:659-663.
[19]Sharland GK,Allan LD.Screening for congenital heart disease prenatally.Resultsof a 2 1/2-year study in the South East Thames Region[J].Br J Obstet Gynaecol,1992,99:220-225.
[20]Carvalho JS,Mavrides E,Shinebourne EA,et al.Improving the effectiveness of routine prenatal screening for major congenital heart defects[J].Heart,2002,88:387-391.
[21]Hunter S,Heads A,Wyllie J,et al.Prenatal diagnosis of congenital heart disease in the northern region of England:benefits of a training programme for obstetric ultrasonographers[J].Heart,2000,84:294-298.
[22]LeeW.Performance of the basic fetal cardiac ultrasound examination[J].J Ultrasound Med,1998,17:601-607.
[23]AIUM.AIUM Practice Guideline for the performance of an antepartum obstetric ultrasound examination[J].J Ultrasound Med,2003,22:1116-1125.
[24]ACR Practice Guideline for the performance of antepartum obstetrical ultrasound[J].Am Coll Radiol,2003:689-695.
[25]ACOG Practice Bulletin No.58.Ultrasonography in pregnancy[J].Obstet Gynecol,2004,104:1449-1458.
[26]Lee W,Allan L,Carvalho JS,et al.ISUOG consensus statement:what constitutes a fetal echocardiogram?[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2008,32:239-242.
[27]Tegnander E,Eik-Nes SH,Johansen OJ,et al.Prenatal detection of heart defects at the routine fetal examination at 18 weeks in a non-selected population[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,1995,5:372-380.
[28]Chaoui R.The four-chamber view:four reasons why it seems to fail in screening for cardiac abnormalities and suggestions to improve detection rate[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2003,22:3-10.
[29]Tegnander E,Eik-Nes SH,Linker DT.Incorporating the fourchamber view of the fetal heart into the second-trimester routine fetal examination[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,1994,4:24-28.
[30]Achiron R,Rotstein Z,Lipitz S,et al.Firsttrimester diagnosis of fetal congenital heart disease by transvaginal ultrasonography[J].Obstet Gynecol,1994,84:69-72.
[31]Yagel S,Weissman A,Rotstein Z,et al.Congenital heart defects:natural course and in utero development[J].Circulation,1997,96:550-555.
[32]Rustico MA,Benettoni A,D’Ottavio G,et al.Early screening for fetal cardiac anomalies by transvaginal echocardiography in an unselected population:the role of operator experience[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2000,16:614-619.
[33]Carvalho JS.Fetal heart scanning in the first trimester.Prenat Diagn 2004;24:1060-1067.
[34]Carvalho JS,Moscoso G,Tekay A,et al.Clinical impact of first and early second trimester fetal echocardiography on high risk pregnancies[J].Heart,2004,90:921-926.
[35]Huggon IC,Ghi T,Cook AC,et al.Fetal cardiac abnormalities identified prior to 14weeks’gestation[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2002,20:22-29.
[36]Schwarzler P,Senat MV,Holden D,et al.Feasibility of the second-trimester fetal ultrasound examination in an unselected population at 18,20 or 22 weeks of pregnancy:a randomized trial[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,1999,14:92-97.
[37]Paladini D,Vassallo M,Tartaglione A,et al.The role of tissue harmonic imaging in fetal echocardiography[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2004,23:159-164.
[38]Allan LD,Crawford DC,Chita SK,et al.Prenatal screening for congenital heart disease[J].Br Med J(Clin Res Ed),1986,292:1717-1719.
[39]Copel JA,Pilu G,Green J,et al.Fetal echocardiographic screening for congenital heart disease:the importance of the four-chamber view[J].Am J Obstet Gynecol,1987,157:648-655.
[40]Kirk JS,Riggs TW,Comstock CH,et al.Prenatal screening for cardiac anomalies:the value of routine addition of the aortic root to the four-chamber view[J].Obstet Gynecol,1994,84:427-431.
[41]DeVore GR.The aortic and pulmonary outflow tract screening examination in the human fetus[J].J Ultrasound Med,1992,11:345-348.
[42]Achiron R,Glaser J,Gelernter I,et al.Extended fetal echocardiographic examination for detecting cardiac malformations in low risk pregnancies[J].BMJ,1992,304:671-674.
[43]Achiron R,Rotstein Z,Heggesh J,et al.Anomalies of the fetal aortic arch:a novel sonographic approach to in-utero diagnosis[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2002,20:553-557.
[44]Yoo SJ,Min JY,Lee YH,et al.Fetal sonographic diagnosis of aortic arch anomalies[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2003,22:535-546.
[45]Barboza JM,Dajani NK,Glenn LG,et al.Prenatal diagnosis of congenital cardiac anomalies:a practical approach using two basic views[J].Radiographics,2002,22:1125-1137;discussion 1137-1138.
[46]Del Bianco A,Russo S,Lacerenza N,et al.Four chamber view plus three-vessel and trachea view for a complete evaluation of the fetal heart during the second trimester[J].J Perinat Med,2006,34:309-312.
[47]Di Salvo DN,Brown DL,Doubilet PM,et al.Clinical significance of isolated fetal pericardial effusion[J].J Ultrasound Med,1994,13:291-293.
[48]Yoo SJ,Min JY,Lee YH.Normal pericardial fluid in the fe-tus:color and spectral Doppler analysis[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2001,18:248-252.
[49]Comstock CH.Normal fetal heart axis and position[J].Obstet Gynecol,1987,70:255-259.
[50]Smith RS,Comstock CH,Kirk JS,et al.Ultrasonographic left cardiac axis deviation:a marker for fetal anomalies[J]. Obstet Gynecol,1995,85:187-191.
[51]ACOG Practice Bulletin No.106:Intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring:nomenclature,interpretation,and general management principles[J].Obstet Gynecol,2009,114:192-202.
[52]Copel JA,Liang RI,Demasio K,et al.The clinical significance of the irregular fetal heart rhythm[J].Am J Obstet Gynecol,2000,182:813-817.
[53]Simpson JL,Yates RW,Sharland GK.Irregular heart rate in the fetus:not always benign[J].Cardiol Young,1996,6:28-31.
[54]Cuneo BF,Strasburger JF,Wakai RT,et al.Conduction system disease in fetuses evaluated for irregular cardiac rhythm[J].Fetal Diagn Ther,2006,21:307-313.
[55]Srinivasan S,Strasburger J.Overview of fetal arrhythmias[J].Curr Opin Pediatr,2008,20:522-531.
[56]Kirk JS,Comstock CH,Lee W,et al.Fetal cardiac asymmetry:a marker for congenital heart disease[J].Obstet Gynecol,1999,93:189-192.
[57]Sharland GK,Chan KY,Allan LD.Coarctation of the aorta:difficulties in prenatal diagnosis[J].Br Heart J,1994,71:70-75.
[58]Hornberger LK,Sanders SP,Rein AJ,et al.Left heart obstructive lesions and left ventricular growth in the midtrimester fetus.A longitudinal study[J].Circulation,1995,92:1531-1538.
[59]Paladini D,Palmieri S,Lamberti A,et al.Characterization and natural history of ventricular septal defects in the fetus[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2000,16:118-122.
[60]Axt-Fliedner R,Schwarze A,Smrcek J,et al.Isolated ventricular septal defects detected by color Doppler imaging:evolution during fetal and first year of postnatal life[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2006,27:266-273.
[61]Vettraino IM,Lee W,Bronsteen RA,et al.Sonographic evaluation of the ventricular cardiac outflow tracts[J].J Ultrasound Med,2005,24:566.
[62]Bromley B,Estroff JA,Sanders SP,et al.Fetal echocardiography:accuracy and limitations in a population at high and low risk for heart defects[J].Am J Obstet Gynecol,1992,166:1473-1481.
[63]Stumpflen I,Stumpflen A,Wimmer M,et al.Effect of detailed fetal echocardiography as part of routine prenatal ultrasonographic screening on detection of congenital heart disease[J].Lancet,1996,348:854-857.
[64]Yoo SJ,Lee YH,Kim ES,et al.Three-vessel view of the fetal uppermediastinum:an easy means of detecting abnormalities of the ventricular outflow tracts and great arteries during obstetric screening[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,1997,9:173-182.
[65]Yoo SJ,Lee YH,Cho KS.Abnormal three-vessel view on sonography:a clue to the diagnosis of congenital heart disease in the fetus[J].AJR Am J Roentgenol,1999,172:825-830.
[66]Vinals F,Heredia F,Giuliano A.The role of the three vessels and trachea view(3VT)in the diagnosis of congenital heart defects[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2003,22:358-367.
[67]Yagel S,Arbel R,Anteby EY,et al.The three vessels and trachea view(3VT)in fetal cardiac scanning[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2002,20:340-345.
[68]Tongsong T,Tongprasert F,Srisupundit K,et al.The complete three-vessel view in prenatal detection of congenital heart defects[J].Prenat Diagn,2010,30:23-29.
[69]Berg C,Gembruch U,Geipel A.Outflow tract views in twodimensional fetal echocardiography-part i[J]i.Ultraschall Med,2009,30:230-251.
[70]Yagel S,Cohen SM,Achiron R.Examination of the fetal heart by five short-axis views:a proposed screening method for comprehensive cardiac evaluation[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2001,17:367-369.
[71]Chaoui R,Mc Ewing R.Three cross-sectional planes for fetal color Doppler echocardiography[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2003;21:81-93.
[72]Paladini D.Sonography in obese and overweight pregnant women:clinical,medicolegal and technical issues[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2009,33:720-729.
[73]Nadel AS.Addition of color Doppler to the routine obstetric sonographic survey aids in the detection of pulmonic stenosis[J].Fetal Diagn Ther,2010,28:175-179.
[74]Small M,Copel JA.Indications for fetal echocardiography[J].Pediatr Cardiol,2004,25:210-222.
[75]Hyett J,Moscoso G,Papapanagiotou G,et al.Abnormalities of the heart and great arteries in chromosomally normalfetuses with increased nuchal translucency thickness at 11-13weeks of gestation[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,1996,7:245-250.
[76]Hyett JA,Perdu M,Sharland GK,et al.Increased nuchal translucency at 10-14weeks of gestation as a marker for major cardiac defects[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,1997,10:242-246.
[77]Mavrides E,Cobian-Sanchez F,Tekay A,Moscoso G,et al. Limitations of using firsttrimester nuchal translucency measurement in routine screening for major congenital heart defects[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2001,17:106-110.
[78]Ghi T,Huggon IC,Zosmer N,et al.Incidence of major structural cardiac defects associated with increased nuchal translucency but normal karyotype[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2001,18:610-614.
[79]Paladini D,Volpe P,Sglavo G,et al.Transposition of the great arteries in the fetus:assessment of the spatial relationships of the arterial trunks by four-dimensional echocardiography[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2008,31:271-276.
[80]Volpe P,Campobasso G,De Robertis V,et al.Two-and four-dimensional echocardiography with B-flow imaging and spatiotemporal image correlation in prenatal diagnosis of isolated total anomalous pulmonary venous connection[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2007,30:830-837.
[81]Volpe P,Tuo G,De Robertis V,et al.Fetal interrupted aortic arch:2D-4D echocardiography,associations and outcome[J].Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol,2010,35:302-309.
趙勝 翻譯
陳欣林校對(duì)