托福獨(dú)立寫作的評分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)主要涉及三個(gè)方面:論證、結(jié)構(gòu)和語言。在論證方面要求考生體現(xiàn)內(nèi)容和細(xì)節(jié)的充分性(clearly appropriate explanations, exemplifications, and/or details);在結(jié)構(gòu)方面要求考生體現(xiàn)結(jié)構(gòu)上的統(tǒng)一、演進(jìn)和連貫度(unity, progression, and coherence);在語言方面要求考生體現(xiàn)詞匯和句子的恰當(dāng)性和多樣性(syntactic variety, appropriate word choice)。有一種方法可以較好地幫助考生達(dá)到這三個(gè)方面的寫作要求,那就是使用并列結(jié)構(gòu)。
并列結(jié)構(gòu)是美國總統(tǒng)演講中常用的句式手法,這一點(diǎn)在奧巴馬總統(tǒng)的演講中體現(xiàn)得尤為明顯,甚至可以稱之為一種“總統(tǒng)思維”。如果考生能夠?qū)W習(xí)和“竊取”這種“總統(tǒng)思維”中的精華,將其植入托福獨(dú)立寫作中,那將大大增強(qiáng)托福獨(dú)立寫作的“殺傷力”。下面筆者就來介紹將并列結(jié)構(gòu)運(yùn)用于托福獨(dú)立寫作的三大好處和兩大原則。
運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu)的三大好處
并列結(jié)構(gòu)運(yùn)用于托福獨(dú)立寫作的好處體現(xiàn)在三個(gè)方面:拓展內(nèi)容、增加字?jǐn)?shù)、增強(qiáng)氣勢。
拓展內(nèi)容
并列結(jié)構(gòu)需要兩個(gè)以上的結(jié)構(gòu)并列使用,能夠有效拓展寫作的內(nèi)容和視角,更好地幫助考生達(dá)到托福獨(dú)立寫作評分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中對論證內(nèi)容和細(xì)節(jié)充分度的要求。
增加字?jǐn)?shù)
并列結(jié)構(gòu)的使用在拓展內(nèi)容的同時(shí)也增加了文章的字?jǐn)?shù),有助于考生達(dá)到托福獨(dú)立寫作評分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)在詞匯和句式豐富性方面的要求。
增強(qiáng)氣勢
在美國總統(tǒng)演講和很多經(jīng)典的演說和文章中,能夠給人們留下深刻印象的往往是那些并列結(jié)構(gòu)的句子,因?yàn)椴⒘薪Y(jié)構(gòu)具備更強(qiáng)的說服力和沖擊力。通過在托福獨(dú)立寫作中運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu),考生可以增強(qiáng)文章的說服力和沖擊力,更容易取得高分。
運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu)的兩大原則
了解了運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu)的好處,考生還需要知道如何在實(shí)際的寫作中具體地使用并列結(jié)構(gòu)。并列結(jié)構(gòu)在托福獨(dú)立寫作中的運(yùn)用有兩大原則:①一切皆可“并”;②無處不能“并”。
一切皆可“并”
在托福獨(dú)立寫作中,考生既可以將詞或短語并列,也可以將各類從句或主句并列。
詞的并列
詞的并列是最微觀的并列。英語中的四類實(shí)詞(名詞、動(dòng)詞、形容詞和副詞)都可以并列使用,以增強(qiáng)詞匯的豐富性和內(nèi)容的充實(shí)度。
例1:He transformed our lives, reshaped entire industries, and achieved one of the rarest feats in human history: He changed the way each of us sees the world.
這句話出自奧巴馬寫給喬布斯的悼詞,通過transform、reshape和achieve三個(gè)謂語動(dòng)詞的并列,多角度體現(xiàn)了喬布斯對這個(gè)時(shí)代的貢獻(xiàn)。
例2:It’s the answer spoken by young and old, rich and poor, Democrat and Republican, black, white, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, gay, straight, disabled and not disabled Americans who sent a message to the world that we have never been a collection of red states and blue states; we are, and always will be, the United States of America.
這句話出自奧巴馬2008年在芝加哥發(fā)表的勝選演講,通過大量使用并列的形容詞照顧到了美國各類人群,充實(shí)了演講的內(nèi)容,也增強(qiáng)了氣勢。
短語的并列
除了詞的并列之外,形容詞短語、介詞短語以及非謂語短語也可以并列使用。
例3:Steve was among the greatest of American innovators—brave enough to think differently, bold enough to believe he could change the world, and talented enough to do it.
這句話同樣出自奧巴馬給喬布斯的悼詞,其中brave、bold和talented引導(dǎo)的三個(gè)形容詞短語并列后置,共同修飾前面的名詞innovators,有力地體現(xiàn)了喬布斯的創(chuàng)新精神。
例4:Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
這句話出自林肯著名的葛底斯堡演講,通過用of、by和for引導(dǎo)的三個(gè)并列的介詞短語來修飾名詞government,精煉而有力地傳達(dá)了“民有、民治、民享的政府不會從地球上消亡”這一觀點(diǎn)。
從句的并列
英語中的從句可以分為三大類:名詞性從句(包括主語從句、賓語從句、表語從句和同位語從句)、形容詞性從句(定語從句)和副詞性從句(包括時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)、原因、目的、結(jié)果、讓步、條件、方式、比較九大狀語從句)。這些從句基本上都可以并列使用,用以豐富句式,拓展內(nèi)容,增強(qiáng)文章的氣勢。
例5:If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible, who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time, who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer.
這是奧巴馬2008年勝選演講中的一句話,三個(gè)由who引導(dǎo)的定語從句并列使用,共同修飾名詞anyone,增強(qiáng)了演講氣勢。
例6:For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.
這句話出自一篇雅思閱讀文章,通過并列的四個(gè)同位語從句來解釋名詞fear,多角度闡述了環(huán)保主義者的擔(dān)憂,充實(shí)了文章內(nèi)容,也增強(qiáng)了說服力。
主句的并列
除了詞匯、短語和從句的并列之外,完整的獨(dú)立主句的并列更能使文章顯得內(nèi)容豐富,有排山倒海之勢。
例7:There are far more vital concerns that technology can and should address. Advances in biotechnology can help cure and prevent diseases; advances in medical technology can allow for safer, less invasive diagnosis and treatment; advances in genetics can help prevent birth defects; advances in engineering and chemistry can improve the structural integrity of our buildings, roads, bridges, and vehicles; information technology enables education while communication technology facilitates global participation in the democratic process. In short, health, safety, education, and freedom are the proper final objectives of technology.
這段話出自《GRE官方題庫范文精講》中的一篇范文,文章通過將五個(gè)完整的獨(dú)立主句并列,多角度展示了不同領(lǐng)域的科技能夠解決的社會問題,內(nèi)容充實(shí),具有很強(qiáng)的說服力。
例8:By building one of the planet’s most successful companies from his garage, he exemplified the spirit of American ingenuity. By making computers personal and putting the internet in our pockets, he made the information revolution not only accessible, but intuitive and fun. And by turning his talents to storytelling, he has brought joy to millions of children and grownups alike.
這段話出自奧巴馬給喬布斯的悼詞,三個(gè)獨(dú)立的句子并列,每個(gè)句子都使用介詞短語前置于主句的結(jié)構(gòu)來寫,以排山倒海的氣勢充分體現(xiàn)了喬布斯對世界的貢獻(xiàn)。
無處不能“并”
所謂無處不能“并”,是指并列結(jié)構(gòu)可以運(yùn)用于托福獨(dú)立寫作的首段、主體段以及結(jié)尾段。
并列結(jié)構(gòu)在首段的運(yùn)用
我們來看2011年9月24日托??荚嚨莫?dú)立寫作題目:“Do you agree or disagree: Educating children is a more difficult task than before because children spend too much time on cell phones, online games and social websites.”假如考生選定的觀點(diǎn)是“手機(jī)、在線游戲和社交網(wǎng)站不會使孩子的教育變得更難”,那么在寫首段時(shí),考生就可以借鑒上文定語從句的并列結(jié)構(gòu),對例5的句子進(jìn)行改寫和加工。這樣寫出的句子順暢、有力,給人一氣呵成的感覺:“If there are people who argue that cell phones affect children’s study, who claim that online games destroy children’s life, who insist that social websites are harmful to children’s development, I will refute these arguments with the following reasons and examples.”
并列結(jié)構(gòu)在主體段的運(yùn)用
我們來看2013年5月18日托??荚嚨莫?dú)立寫作題目:“Do you agree or disagree: Government should support scientific research even if the research does not have any practical use.”考生假如不同意題目中的觀點(diǎn),那么在主體段可以選取下面一個(gè)理由:政府資金應(yīng)當(dāng)優(yōu)先支持那些能夠解決更重要問題的實(shí)用的科學(xué)研究。在闡述這條理由的主體段中,考生可以將上文例7的句子進(jìn)行改寫,運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu)的句子來論證:“There are far more vital concerns that practical scientific research should address with the support of government. Developments in biotechnology can help cure and prevent diseases; advances in medical technology can allow for safer, less invasive diagnosis and treatment; progress in genetics can help prevent birth defects; breakthroughs in engineering and chemistry can improve the structural integrity of our buildings, roads, bridges, and vehicles; information technology enables education while communication technology facilitates global participation in the democratic process. In short, government should support practical research rather than impractical research to address more critical problems concerning health, safety, education, and freedom.”這種使用并列結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行論述的方法可以豐富主體段的內(nèi)容,增強(qiáng)主體段的論證力度,充分體現(xiàn)實(shí)用性科學(xué)研究的價(jià)值。
并列結(jié)構(gòu)在結(jié)尾段的運(yùn)用
托福獨(dú)立寫作結(jié)尾段的主要功能是總結(jié)、概括主體段給出的理由,重新強(qiáng)調(diào)主旨,使用并列結(jié)構(gòu)可以把主體段的分析很好地整合在一起。如在上文關(guān)于孩子教育的寫作題目中,考生如果不同意“手機(jī)、在線游戲和社交網(wǎng)站會使孩子教育變得更加困難”,那在主體段可以分別從手機(jī)、在線游戲和社交網(wǎng)站這三個(gè)角度來論證它們能對孩子的教育產(chǎn)生怎樣有利的影響。這樣在結(jié)尾段中,考生就可以改寫上文例8的句子來總結(jié)全文:“By reading newspapers on cell phones, children can keep abreast of the latest news and information. By playing beneficial online games, children can relax and cultivate a spirit of cooperation. And by making reasonable use of social websites, children can make friends with people from all over the world.”
筆者通過研究美國總統(tǒng)的演講稿、名人的經(jīng)典文章以及全國英語演講比賽中冠軍選手的演講稿,發(fā)現(xiàn)一個(gè)共同的特點(diǎn):他們都善于運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu)來為演講和寫作增色。當(dāng)然,托福獨(dú)立寫作是對扣題性、論證、結(jié)構(gòu)和語言的全面考查,僅僅運(yùn)用并列結(jié)構(gòu)并不能保證考生在寫作中拿高分,但是并列結(jié)構(gòu)能夠幫助考生在扣題、論證和結(jié)構(gòu)沒有出現(xiàn)重大偏差的情況下增加文章的亮點(diǎn),輔助考生在托福獨(dú)立寫作中取得高分??忌梢試L試改寫自己在總統(tǒng)演講或名家經(jīng)典中讀到的并列句式,將其運(yùn)用到托福獨(dú)立寫作的首段、主體段或結(jié)尾段中,為自己的文章增添一抹亮色。