A Critical Review on Language Learning Strategies and Implications for College English Teaching

潘娟

Abstract： This paper reviews the current developments of language learning strategy researches in the world， both approval and critical voices on the issue of strategy instruction. Then it summarizes the current developments of learning strategy instruction in China. It indicates college English teachers should model learning strategy and make the instruction explicit. Students are advised to be active in seeking for strategies suitable for themselves through their own exploration and reflection.

Key words： critical review； language learning strategies； English teaching

[中圖分類號]G63

[文獻標識碼]A

[文章編號]1006-2831（2013）08-0062-6 doi：10.3969/j.issn.1006-2831.2013.03.016

1. Introduction

The study of language learning strategies has a long tradition within second language acquisition research. The purpose of strategy use is to “improve performance in language learning and use of ones second or foreign language” （Anderson， 2005： 757）. The relationship between strategy use and language proficiency has been proved by numerous studies. To take strategy learning into classroom to improve students language learning is the working aim of many researchers and teachers. Especially in China， if college students can master English learning strategies， English learning will become much easier and interesting for each student. However， there still exist difficulties to integrate learning strategies into classroom instruction. Further researches are developing.

This thesis first reviews the current developments of learning strategy researches in the world. Then it summarizes the related situations in China. In the following part， it indicates what Chinese researchers and English teachers should try to do with strategy instruction in order to make contribution to English education. Finally， the author gives some discussion of how this review shapes the thinking about English language teaching in China.

2. A review of the literature

2.1 Definition and importance of learning strategies

It is not easy to tie down the definition of learning strategies partly because the concept of “strategy” itself is somewhat fuzzy and partly because terms like skills， strategies， processes， and approaches are used differently by different people. A dictionary definition of strategy is “a clever plan or method； the art of employing plans towards achieving a goal”. From this definition， it is easy to apply this sense to a learning context： a learning strategy is the means to achieve the goal of linguistic competence， the plan or method （Zhang， 2005： 37）. There are many other definitions put forward by different researchers from different perspectives. Stern （1983） considers that language learning strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall features of the approach employed by the language learners（as cited in Wang， 2007： 42）. Rubin （1987） gives his own understanding that learning strategies are strategies that contribute to the development of the language system that the learner constructs and affect learning directly（ibid.）. Oxford （1990） believes that language learning strategies are those activities used to make language learning easier， faster， more enjoyable， more effective and more transferable to new situations. The scholars in China also have their own different opinions. Wen Qiufang （1996） defines them as the cognition in learners mind and concrete activity of the learners. The above definitions show that no researchers define language learning strategies in exactly the same way. However， in general meaning， they are the specific techniques used by second or foreign language learners. They are procedures that facilitate a learning task（Chamot， 2005： 112）.

Chamot and OMalley （1995） contend that learning strategies are important because they represent the dynamic processes underlying learning； active learners are better learners； strategies can be learned； academic language learning is more effective with learning strategies. Chamot （2005： 116） gives two reasons to explain the importance of learning strategy. One is that we gain insights into the metacognitive， cognitive， social， and affective processes involved in language learning by examining the strategies adopted by language learners. The other is that less successful learners can be taught new strategies to become better language learners.

2.2 Classification of learning strategies

There are many ways to classify language learning strategies. Among them， two classifications should be mentioned. Oxford（1990） divides learning strategies into two main categories： direct strategies and indirect strategies. These two groups are subdivided into six subcategories： memory， cognitive， compensation， social， affective， and metacognitive. Oxfords classification is regarded as the most comprehensive classification.

Unlike Oxford， Chamot （1995： 14） divides strategies into three main categories depending on the level or type of processing involved： metacognitive， cognitive and social and affective. These strategies entail planning learning， monitoring the process of learning and evaluating the success of a particular strategy. This classification is among the most popular categorizations in the literature.

Most learning strategy classification systems are developed for research purposes. According to Chamot （2004： 17）， different classification systems can coexist for researchers.

2.3 Development of the research

The study of learning strategies in second language acquisition started around the 1970s（Rubin， 1975； Wong Fillmore， 1976 and 1979； Stern， 1975， as cited in Chamot， 2004： 14）. The early research identified the primary strategies that good learners use while they are engaged in the tasks of language learning. The 1980s and early 1990s were a period of substantial research on language learning strategies， much of it descriptive. This was followed by a period in which interest in the area materialized mainly in empirical research. Since the mid 90s，and particularly from the turn of the century， many far-reaching changes in theoretical and empirical developments can be seen obviously. In more recent years， we have witnessed mounting evidence of the usefulness of learners incorporating strategies into their acquisition process. Strategy-based instruction and autonomous self-help training have been demonstrated to be effective for various learners in various contexts. Whats more， the main claim of strategy research is that the ultimate goal of the empirical work in this field is to improve second language learning and teaching in classroom context.

The researches conducted to date have proved that there is a strong relationship between strategy use and progress in language learning. Strategy instruction can contribute to the development of learner mastery and autonomy and increased teacher expertise. According to Macaro （2006）， strategies are the raw materials without which language learning and successful language task completion are simply impossible （as cited in Manchon， 2008： 230-231）. Strategy instruction should be part of language teaching program. Steve McDonough （1999） describes the essence of strategy intervention as the bridge which links what learners can do and what they will do （ibid.）. Whats more， the effectiveness of learning strategy instruction has been well established in first language contexts（Chamot， 2005： 119）. However， it is argued that it might not be practical to think of taking strategies to the foreign language classroom in terms of abstract decontextualized attempts to pass the ownership of the learning to the students themselves （Manchon， 2008： 231）. In addition， there is less agreement on the issues of whether strategies instruction should be integrated into language curriculum or taught independently.

There are critical voices on the issue of strategy instruction. Rees-Miller （1993） contends that strategy instruction was based on some assumptions， thus it has no solid theoretical framework as the basis. More precisely， she argues that “l(fā)earning strategies in order to be teachable and their results replicable must be defined in terms of specific behaviors” （as cited in Manchon， 2008）. Steve McDonough （1999） also stresses the lack of“an adequate theory of strategic behavior to which all results can be related” （1993： 13） and the need for “theoretical research to develop precision on our conception of strategies”（ibid.）. In response to these critical voices， Chamot points out those critical views do not suggest strategy instruction is ineffective. Ten years after the publication of Rees-millers paper， Chamot （2005） still talks about taking strategies to the classroom. She states that instruction in learning strategies will assume a greater role in teacher preparation and curriculum design. And in recent years， a number of researchers have conducted studies in which learning strategies have been taught to students in classroom settings.

3. The study of language learning strategies in China

3.1 English learning strategies research in China

In China， the research into language learning strategies began in the middle 1980s. Huang Xiaohuas masters thesis An Investigation of Learning Strategies in Oral Communication that Chinese EFL Learners in China Employ marks the beginning of the research on English language learning strategies in China （1984）. In the subsequent years， many other researchers have contributed a lot in this area. The question that puzzles researchers is whether strategy training would result in improvement in Chinese EFL learners. So studies on EFL learner training have been on the rise in the past two decades， covering a broad range of strategies for vocabulary learning， reading， writing， listening and speaking skills （Wen Qiufang， 1995，1997； Zheng Shutang et al.， 1997； Wu Weiying， 2000； Zhou Xiaorong， 2000； Wu Lilin， 2001； Chen Shufang， 2002； Wang Lifei， 2002； Yu Lu， 2003， as cited in Jia， 2006： 54-55）. College English Curriculum Requirements （2004）， which is the guidelines for English instruction to nonEnglish major students in China， called for the integration of learning strategies in English teaching to enhance students abilities of independent learning.

After two decades of research， language learning strategy studies have made great progress in China. However， there are limitations. Many researchers were either summarizing their teaching or learning experiences or introducing the related theories by translating works of western researchers. Creative and systematic researches are sporadic. In addition， researches on language skills learning strategies are seriously imbalanced. Many researches were conducted in listening comprehension strategies while fewer studies were done in reading and writing strategies. Vocabulary learning strategy research was done very successfully while there are no substantial researches in the area of pronunciation and grammar learning. Whats more， research methods adopted by researchers are imbalanced. They rely too much on questionnaires rather than experimental research， individual research or the complex research methods （Wen， 2004）.

3.2 The situation of using English learning strategies in college

As many scholars， researchers and linguists devote so much energy to research learning strategies and are paying more attention to them， what the situation is like in colleges？ How do the teachers and students react to English learning strategies？ Discouragingly， many teachers do no have a systematic understanding of both the theory and the instruction about language learning strategies. Consequently， they still teach in the traditional way， and students follow the traditional teaching method thus learn in the traditional way. Its reported that the Foreign Language Research Center in the Southwest Normal University carried out a survey into the English teaching in college in 1999. The result of the survey shows pure knowledge always occupies the more important place than ability universally in classroom English education. Teachers tend to stress the importance of vocabulary， pronunciation and grammar instead of cultivating students creativity and autonomous learning ability. After a decade， the situation seems almost unchanged. We still do not include strategy instruction in our teaching schedule. Pure knowledge of English still occupies the dominating place in our teaching plans.