The Philosophy of the Sages Is the Study of Mind: Development of the Study of Mind in the History of Confucian Philosophy?

Shen Shunfu

Abstract: Philosophy inquiries into the ultimate sources of things, including for example the mind.In the history of Chinese Confucianism, Confucius was the fi rst to speculate about questions concerning mind.The Great Learning established the mind as the origin of things.Mencius and Xunzi interpreted the good mind and bad mind respectively as equivalent to human nature.Dong Zhongshu focused on the functioning of the mind of action, such as its thinking function.Scholars of Dark Learning concentrated on the tension between mind’s thinking and living functions and overemphasized the natural mind at the expense of the active mind.Based on their doctrines of the unity of Heaven and Humanity, Zhang Zai then tried to establish the mind for Heaven and Earth.Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi deemed the mind as the source of benevolence and supposed that there was principle in it and that the Heavenly principle was the master of all the myriad things in the cosmos.According to Zhu Xi，the principle of Heaven manifests as human nature and dwells in the mind.The Heavenly principle in the human mind is termed as intuitive knowledge by Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming.Over the course of this long historical process, the transcendental power that dominates the cosmos was accordingly transformed from a physical object to the mind,and human beings thus were refi gured in Confucian philosophy as the ultimate rulers of the cosmos.In this sense, the history of Confucian philosophy is actually a history of the study of mind.

Keywords: Confucian studies, mind, human nature, principle

Philosophy inquiries into the ultimate sources of things, and these can be classified into two types: (1) the sources of living, of the survival of all things, like fire and water; and(2) the sources of existence, that is, the theoretical, ultimate origins of things.Ordinarypeople treat “source” and “origin” as equivalents, but from the perspective of philosophers,among the sources of things is an ultimate origin, which is the ultimate, transcendent basis for the sources’ being sources.Therefore, “sources” can be divided into two categories,namely empirical sources of living and the ultimate origin of existence.Of these, the empirical sources are knowable while the ultimate origin is transcendental and can only be understood through speculation.The mission of philosophy is to speculate and explore this ultimate existence.

The source of human existence is heart or the mind (xin心).The Chinese characterxin心 originally refers toxinzang心臟 (heart), an organ of human body.Explaining Graphs and Interpreting Characters[說文解字], an ancient dictionary, explains: “The character 心refers to the heart of a person.It is an organ which has the nature of earth.It is in the body of a person and is pictographic.”1Xu Shen 許慎, Explaining Graphs and Interpreting Characters [說文解字] (Tianjin: Tianjin Classics Publishing House,1991), 217.The heart is one of traditional Chinese medicine’s fi ve organs of human body (wuzang五藏), along with the liver, spleen, lung, and kidney.2Wang Bing 王冰, ed., Additional Commentaries to the Plain Conversation of Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Medicine[補注黃帝內(nèi)經(jīng)素問], in Collection of Twenty-Two Philosophical Works [二十二子] (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1986), 879.Moreover,in the traditional Chinese view, the heart is the foundation of human survival.It provides the engine for the continuity of life from moment to moment and so it is the foundation of survival in the most basic sense.Second, human survival is not only the continuation of the living vessel but also is embodied in our behaviors or activities, which are also based on the mind.Therefore the mind is not only the source but also the master of human behavior.In sum,xinis the source of human existence and naturally became the central theme of traditional Chinese Confucian philosophy.The history of Confucian philosophy can be said to be a pursuit ofxinas source, and thus a history of the study of mind.That is why Wang Yangming 王陽明 (Wang Shouren 王守仁, 1472—1529) said that “the philosophy of the sages is the study of the mind.”3Wang Shouren 王守仁, “Preface to the Collected Works of Lu Xiangshan” [象山文集序], in vol.7 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王陽明全集] (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1992), 245.That is true.In the process of exploring the connotations ofxinas the origin, traditional Confucianism has gone through two distinct stages, developing from looking for empirical sources to the transcendental origin.It is this turning point that marked the transformation of traditional Confucian philosophy from an empirical outlook on life and the cosmos to speculative metaphysics.The two stages together constitute a complete history of traditional Confucian study of the mind.

Interpretating the Mind as Human Nature: The Pre-Qin Confucian Study of Mind and Its First Change in Direction

[Refer to page 49 for Chinese.Similarly hereinafter]

Since Confucius, Confucians have been paying attention to the mind.Confucius said,“At seventy, I could follow the desires of my mind without transgressing” (Analects2:4).On one hand, Confucius wanted to indulge his desires and respect his own needs.On the other, he was always mindful of rules and social order.In fact, Confucius emphasized the restraint of rules and principles on the mind.“Yan Hui 顏回 (521—481 BCE) did not stray from benevolence (ren仁) in his mind for a long time, while the rest could only sporadically maintain such a state” (6:7).The human mind should be based on benevolence,righteousness (yi義), and ritual propriety (li禮), that is, following the Way (dao道) ofbenevolence and righteousness and conforming to ritual propriety.Although Confucius already understood the concept of mind at that time, he refrained from discussing it directly(“do not talk about the mind”) and his understanding of the mind was relatively simple.The “Great Learning”realized the important role and fundamental position of the mind in human existence and “took this for granted”4Mou Zongsan 牟宗三, Original Substance of the Mind or Innate Nature [心體與性體], book I (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1995), 15.: “From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider their self-cultivation the root of everything else”; “One’s self-cultivation depends on rectifying the mind” (Book of Rites, “Great Learning”; Legge).Hence, self-cultivation is of the utmost importance, focusing mainly on making the will sincere (chengyi誠意) and rectifying the mind (zhengxin正心).Only when the mind is upright can a person be cultivated.As the fundamental element of human behavior, the mind is the origin.

As origin, thought Mencius, the mind is our innate nature (xing性).From a moral point of view, Mencius held that human beings are endowed with physical mind (氣質(zhì)之心), which he divided into two categories, namely good and bad: the good one is the original mind, and the bad one is a greedy mind.People are born with a good and kind mind, that is, with feelings of compassion, shame and dislike, modesty and complaisance,and approving and disapproving.Mencius regards these feelings (called the Four Sprouts)as the basis of rational behavior.“Men have these Four Sprouts of Humanity just as they have their four limbs” (Mencius2A:6).The Four Sprouts are the basis and starting point of human existence, but also they form basis of people’s reasonable or correct behavior.Mencius asserted, “The feeling of compassion is essential to man, and also the feeling of shame and dislike, the feeling of modesty and complaisance, and the feeling of approving and disapproving” (ibid).The four feelings form the basis or foundation of human beings,distinguishing us from other beings.This innate and original existence, which distinguishes humans from other animals, is what Mencius calls innate nature.Concerning Mencius’s theory of human nature, Tang Junyi 唐君毅 (1909—1978) holds that Mencius “explains human nature through mind,”5Tang Junyi 唐君毅, Origins of Chinese Philosophy: The Origin of Innate Nature [中國哲學原論·原性篇] (Beijing:China Social Sciences Press, 2005), 15.or rather, he explains the mind by reference to human nature.This transition from a mind-oriented theory to a nature-oriented one represents the larger, macro-level turn in the history of Confucian study of the mind to human nature.From philosophical and anthropological perspectives, such a turn was a milestone marking the point at which Confucians began to think about the essence of human beings.

Xunzi also explained the mind in terms of human nature.He divided physical mind into a good mind and a greedy mind too.Though Xunzi did not deny that people were born with a good mind, he seldom initiated any discussion of it.Xunzi paid more attention to the greedy mind and thought everyone had an acquisitive one:

Now, the innate nature of a man is such that he is born with a love of profi t.Following this nature will cause its aggressiveness and greedy tendencies to grow and courtesy and deference to disappear.Humans are born with feelings of envy and hatred.Indulging these feelings causes violence and crime to develop and loyalty and trustworthiness to perish.Man is born with possessing the desires of the ears and eyes which are fond of sounds and colors.Indulging these desires causes dissolute and wanton behavior to result and ritual and moral principles, precepts of good forms and the natural order of reason to perish.6“Man’s Nature Is Evil” [性惡], in Xunzi.The English translations of the Xunzi are based on John Knoblock’s version,with some alterations.

The mind desiring profit often causes disaster, so it is bad.Xunzi defined such a mind as innate human nature, which manifests itself as passions and desires.Thus in Xunzi’sfamous theory of human nature as bad, people’s bad nature or bad mind is the origin of unwholesome behaviors.So in Xunzi too we fi nd a theory that regards mind as origin.

Unlike Mencius, Xunzi advocated a positive and active philosophy of life.The core of this positive and active outlook on life is a mind of action, which mainly manifests as thinking.Xunzi compared this mind to the Lord of Heaven, which is used to guide the spiritual or thinking activities of human beings.Xunzi said, “The mind is the lord of the body and master of the spiritual intelligence.It issues commands but does not receive them” (“Dispelling Blindness” [解蔽]).The thinking mind, without restraint, often acts out its nature, to the point of danger and risk.Therefore this mind is not good, which is to say, bad.Although Xunzi attached great importance to cognition and the thinking function of mind, he did not believe in the legitimacy or morality of this function.In other words, Xunzi was not at ease with the natural activities of the mind.Therefore, Xunzi proposed an art of mind, by which to regulate the mind withdao.In Xunzi, therefore, people necessarily need humanizing.

In the pre-Qin period, the “Great Learning,” Mencius, and Xunzi all began to focus on activities of the mind and tried to reveal the properties and functions of mind from a philosophical perspective.The mind was perceived as the starting point or source of human existence.It was understood to have two dimensions, namely a good mind which was the source of correct behaviors and a bad mind which was the source of wrong activities.Mencius and Xunzi identified these two minds as human nature.That is, they explained mind by reference to human nature.The mind and human nature were not understood as completely separate but as overlapping.According to Mencius, to become human is to complete one’s virtue and nature, and to complete human nature is to exert the good mind to the utmost.In Xunzi’s view, self-cultivation means defusing one’s bad nature, and defusing the bad nature means reforming the bad mind.At the same time, the thinking function of the mind also began to be revealed.In this period, the fundamental position of the human mind in human existence and practice was gradually unfolded.The study of mind gradually shifted to that of human nature.The theory of human nature and related arguments directly gave rise to ideas about humanity’s original substance.

Emphasizing the Mind of Action and the Han Dynasty Confucian Study of Mind [51]

What is human? What is the essence of humanity? “Human” refers fi rst and foremost to an animal organism.The second connotation of the word “human” is derived from human behavior is manmade or humanistic.And human activity is the intentional behavior of human beings, and its foundation is the mind of action.A mind of action is first of all a physical mind.For human beings, the primary function of this kind of physical mind is the basis of survival.The mind is the foundation of living.Its main function is to prolong life.Nourishing the mind is an important means to achieve health and longevity.According to traditional Confucian philosophy, life lies inqi氣 (vital energy).“So the most important aspect of keeping healthy is to protectqi.”7Su Yu 蘇輿, Interpretations of the Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals [春秋繁露義證], ed.Zhong Zhe 鐘哲 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1992), 452.The translations of the Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn follow Sarah A.Queen and John S.Major, with some alterations.Thus to promote health is to nourish the mind,promoteqi, and refresh the spirit.So the spirit or human mind is the core of life.

Human survival not only refers to the continuation of life but also manifests in various social behaviors.The foundation of this behavior is the mind of action.Dong Zhongshu董仲舒 (179—104 BCE) termed this original mind of action as innate nature.“Human nature contains the sprouts of goodness.Children love their parents, so they are better than animals.In this sense, [their nature] is called good.This is Mencius’s notion of goodness.”8Su, Interpretations of the Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals, 303—304.Dong Zhongshu proposed that human nature had sprouts of goodness.There are at least two implications to the statement.First, the basis of good behavior is human nature.Second, human nature has not only a good sprout but also a bad one.Human nature is a mixture of good and bad, of which the good sprout is the benevolent mind.Dong Zhongshu said, “It is the function of the mind to restrain the various evils inside and not allow them to fi nd expression without.In this sense, the mind is a name associated with ‘restraint.’ If human beings had no bad intentions when they were endowed withqi[at birth], then why would the mind need restraint?”9Ibid., 293.With this restraining function, the mind guides people to foster their goodness and squelch their badness.Accordingly, Dong Zhongshu highly affirmed the positive role of the mind in existence, saying:

Heaven gives birth to human beings, and sustains them by the ideas of righteousness and material benefits.Material benefits are used to nourish their bodies and righteousness to cultivate their minds.If the mind does not obtain righteousness, it cannot be joyful;if the body does not obtain material benefits, it cannot be secure.Righteousness is the mind’s nourishment; and material benefits are the body’s nourishment.With regard to the body, nothing is more exalted than the mind.With regard to nurture, nothing is more important than righteousness.Thus righteousness plays a role more important than material benefi ts for nourishing and sustaining people.10Ibid., 263.

The activity of the mind can bring benevolence and righteousness.Benevolence is the expansion and perfection of the benevolent mind.When Dong Zhongshu said, “benevolence[is correlated with] the mind of Heaven,”11Ibid., 161.he did mean that benevolenceisthe mind of Heaven but that it originates from the mind of Heaven.The mind is the source of benevolence.This notion can be said to be an inheritance and development of Mencius’s theory on human nature.

The human mind provides not only the basis of morality, benevolence, and righteousness,but also the foundation of cognitive thinking.“The alterations of sorrow and joy correspond toyinandyang; its mind has calculations and deliberations corresponding to degrees and numbers.”12Ibid., 357.Dong Zhongshu realized that the mind had a thinking faculty.Compared with previous Confucians, Dong Zhongshu paid more attention to the role ofzhi智 (somewhat similar to reason and wisdom).Emphasizing reason necessarily entails emphasizing the rational function of mind, and this emphasis on the rational mind refl ects Dong Zhongshu’s positive outlook or attitude toward life.Manifesting as reason, the mind of action pursues wisdom.Such a combination of living and wisdom is sagehood or saintliness.“When someone asks about ‘sagehood,’ the reply is ‘mind.’”13Wang Rongbao 汪榮寶, Commentary on the Exemplary Sayings [法言義疏], ed.Chen Zhongfu 陳仲夫 (Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company, 1987), 137.To be a sage is to exert the mind to the utmost.In this way, one can not only become a sage with longevity but also with omnipotence.Hence the mind is the cause and sagehood the result.Devote one’s mind,and one can become a sage; give up and one achieves nothing.Here in Dong Zhongshu,the mind is like human nature in Mencius; it is not only the basis of existence but also the source of wisdom.The Han dynasty (206 BCE—220 CE) Confucians emphasized the rational mind or the mind of action.

The Intentionless Mind and the Study of Mind in Wei-Jin Dark Learning [52]

The most prominent manifestation of the mind of action is rational activity.Rational activity is embodied in people’s daily life and practice, such as national governance.Wang Bi 王弼(226—249) wrote, “Wisdom resembles governance, and so it is that [Laozi says that] ruling a country by wisdom is like robbing.”14Wang Bi 王弼, Wang Bi’s Collected Commentaries [王弼集校釋], ed.Lou Yulie 樓宇烈 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980),168.So wisdom is governance in that it is intentional behavior.It governs a country in a thoughtful way with the help of institutions and is a typical rational activity.Guo Xiang 郭象 (ca.252—312) noted, “Cherishing a will and acting on it is a predetermined mind (cheng xin成心).”15Guo Xiang 郭象, Commentaries on the Zhuangzi [莊子注], in Collection of Twenty-Two Philosophical Works, 16.Everyone has a predetermined mind, that is, an existing mind or the sense of right and wrong that one recognizes as a guide to behavior.It is also called the mind as an inner guide (shi xin師心).According to modern anthropology,rational human beings always live under the guidance of reason, in another word, following what is formed in one’s mind as a guide.“Continuing to run on its own is the Way of Heaven;doing it with intentional mind is the Way of Humanity.”16Ibid., 66.Intentional action refers to deliberate human activities.To some extent, this defi nition reveals some basic qualities of humans, the continuing existence of human beings is not a natural given but an active and intentional effort.

This kind of active and thoughtful mind was not recognized or affirmed by Dark Learning scholars.Wang Bi said, “If you are a person with wisdom, others would argue with you.If you are a person with strength, others would compete with you.If you argue with others and your wisdom is inferior to others, you are at your wits’ end.”17Wang Bi, Wang Bi’s Collected Commentaries, 130.Wisdom often leads to argument and danger, which is why Wang Bi proposed to give up subjective rational activity.This is what is meant by an intentionless mind.Ji Kang 嵇康 (ca.236—262), speaking about health preservation, claimed that intentional and rational activities were harmful to health preservation:

The reason why people respect wisdom and advocate action is that they believe these can boost health and extend life.When desire is restless, sorrow and vexation will be brought to bear; and when wisdom is in charge, people will indulge their own aspirations.Indulging pursuing aspirations will invite external temptations.Sorrow and vexation bring about accumulated mischief which endangers the body.These two acts are not born within but generated by external factors.Therefore, they will not prolong life but endanger the body.18Xia Mingzhao 夏明釗, ed., A Modern Interpretation and Annotation of the Collected Works of Ji Kang [嵇康集譯注](Harbin: Heilongjiang People’s Publishing House, 1987), 58.

Respecting wisdom and having restless desire is not the Way to preserve health, but instead is the root of ailments.Ruan Ji 阮籍 (210—263) said, “It is because those who are wise and tactful do harm to things, those who are clear about right and wrong do harm to the body,and those who are decorated to show purity are confused with life, and those who fear death and aspire to longevity lose their faith.”19Ruan Ji 阮籍, Collated and Annotated Works of Ruan Ji [阮籍集校注], ed.Chen Bojun 陳伯君 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2014), 121.The deliberate Way of Humanity and the natural principle (li理) are often contradictory.The best way is to be without good or bad, that is,to abandon sense and judgment.

When Dark Learning scholars advocated an intentionless mind, this did not mean that the mind is not needed but that there should be a mind of no intention, that is, anatural mind without contemplation.This natural heart or living heart is human nature.Wang Bi wrote, “If one’s sentiment is close to his nature, the inherent nature dominates the sentiment.When one’s sentiment is close to his nature, does having desire matter?”20Wang Bi, Wang Bi’s Collected Commentaries, 631.Undistorted activity originates in the nature, and this kind of activity based on human nature embodies the naturalness and necessity of human action.This is “inherent nature dominating sentiment,” which means that all human behaviors and activities will comply with the physical nature.In Ji Kang’s view, human nature is the basis of human behaviors.“To be good friends with each other, it is important to understand each other’s natural instincts and then help them.”21Xia, A Modern Interpretation and Annotation of the Collected Works of Ji Kang, 275.A person can be known by his or her nature.Inherent nature is the basis of survival.Guo Xiang said, “The original is the basis of inherent nature and life.”22Guo, Commentaries on the Zhuangzi, 49.Since the inherent nature itself is an origin, it is inevitable that it be acted out.Acting out inherent nature is to conform to the natural instincts, to let the natural mind or inherent nature go on its own.And acting out the mind is to comply with inherent nature,and so the natural human mind is the innate nature.

Human nature is a physical matter.Following human nature means making most of it, which has not only moral connotation but also a natural one, and this natural value is refl ected in longevity.Wang Bi valued the living mind and belittled the mind of action so as to restore the spirit.He wrote, “Stick to simplicity and do non-action; do not let things affect the true [nature], do not let desire spoil the spirit, and then other things will submit[to them] of their own accord, like guests, and the Way will automatically be achieved.”23Wang Bi, Wang Bi’s Collected Commentaries, 81.Taking intentionless mind as the mind, the people would not spoil their spirit and thus restore spirit and enjoy longevity.Ji Kang said, “If a man preserves health in the right way,he is likely to enjoy a life span from hundreds to thousands of years.”24Xia, A Modern Interpretation and Annotation of the Collected Works of Ji Kang, 45.“So people should cultivate their nature to preserve the spirit and have a peaceful mind to preserve their bodies.”25Ibid.To have longevity, one must preserve the spirit.To preserve the spirit, one must cultivate one’s nature.Making the most of nature and life, and one can enjoy longevity.Guo Xiang advocates achieving the spirit through an intentionless mind.“If there is spirit and mind in the human body, the body and things will harmonize.”26Guo, Commentaries on the Zhuangzi, 25.There being the spirit and mind, human and the cosmos harmonize.The mind of the sage is integrated into the myriad things, which is the existence that Guo Xiang pursued.This integration, from the point of view of Heaven and humanity, is the unity of the myriad things.It is also a kind of exerting the nature and life to the utmost, enjoying all the natural endowments.This is longevity or the bequest of life.One who lives to his or her full life span is an immortal.

The Mind of Heaven and Earth:Early Neo-Confucian Philosophy of Mind [55]

The Wei—Jin (220—420) theory of the unity of all things undoubtedly represented a revolution in intellectual history.The relationship between human beings and the cosmos changed from the early one, in which human beings submitted to the cosmos, to a kind of brotherhood with the cosmos.Human beings then gained equal status with Heaven and Earth.Whothen guided or dominated the existence of this unity? This was the question for the Neo-Confucians of the Song (960—1279) and Ming (1368—1644) dynasties.To answer this question, early Neo-Confucians found a traditional term:tiandi zhi xin天地之心 (the mind of Heaven and Earth),27See Shen Shunfu 沈順福, “An Interpretation of ‘the Mind of Heaven and Earth’” [“天地之心”釋義], The Central Plains Culture Research [中原文化研究], no.4 (2016): 28—34.which literally referred to the heart (as the organ) of the cosmos.This mind is not only the source of the cosmos, but also its ruler.Therefore discussions of the mind of Heaven and Earth gradually became the priority of Neo-Confucians.

At fi rst, people investigated the sources of the cosmos or the mind of Heaven and Earth in a traditional thinking way.“‘The mind of Heaven and Earth’ is the origin whence all things derive from,”28Shao Yong 邵雍, Collected Works of Shao Yong [邵雍集], ed.Guo Yu 郭彧 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,2010), 163.said Shao Yong 邵雍 (1011—1077).Here the mind of Heaven and Earth is the basic source of all living things in the cosmos, so it can be interpreted as the determiner of the myriad things in the cosmos.Zhang Zai 張載 (1020—1077) noted, “The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is to produce.That which can produce things is the basis, and that is the mind of Heaven and Earth.”29Zhang Zai 張載, Collected Works of Zhang Zai [張載集], ed.Zhang Xichen 章錫琛 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1978),113.The mind of Heaven and Earth is not only the source of the cosmos but also the determiner of its existence.As source, the mind of Heaven and Earth is also called the nature of Heaven and Earth.“The name of Heaven is originated from the Great Void (taixu太虛); the name of the Way is originated from the transformation ofqi;the name of innate nature is originated from the combination of the Great Void andqi; the name of mind is originated from the combination of nature and perception.”30Ibid., 9.The mind of Heaven and Earth must contain the nature of Heaven and Earth.The nature formed by the combination of the Great Void andqi, or the nature of Heaven and Earth, thus becomes the basis of existence.Existence is nothing but exerting the nature of Heaven and Earth to the utmost.This process is called benevolence.“Though Heaven has no mind originally,the creation of all things has to be attributed to Heaven.This is the benevolence of Heaven and Earth.”31Ibid., 266.Preserving the mind or completing the nature is benevolence.Zhang Zai tried to establish the mind for Heaven and Earth and construct a cosmos of benevolence and righteousness.Therefore, in Zhang benevolence becomes the cosmos’s way of living.

According to Cheng Hao 程顥 (1032—1085) and Cheng Yi 程頤 (1033—1107), benevolence,as a way of existence, is a universal way of the world.32“The Way of benevolence is just one word, ‘universal.’” Cheng Hao 程顥 and Cheng Yi 程頤, Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers [二程集], ed.Wang Xiaoyu 王孝魚 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2004), 153.Benevolence was originally the Confucian Way of Humanity.Benevolence does not only serve human beings but also permeates the cosmos and becomes universal Way of the world.“The benevolent takes the myriad things in the Heaven and Earth as one, and everything is in its control, into which I integrate.”33Ibid., 1179.I integrate with everything, and everything integrates with me.This integrated unity is benevolence.The starting point of this integrating benevolence is the mind of Heaven and Earth.The mind of Heaven and Earth contains the principle of Heaven.“Be it a principle, it should be the principle of the Heavenly Way.”34Ibid., 290.The Way of Heaven is based on the principle of Heaven.“The nature is also principle.The so-called principle is also the nature.”35Ibid., 292.Since the nature and principle are consistent, then the absolute ultimate principleis an inherent thing of human beings; in other words, the ultimate principle or human nature lies in the mind.This is the position of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130—1200) and later scholars of mind: the innate human mind is born with the principle of Heaven in it.

Although the Cheng brothers regarded the principle of Heaven as the ultimate root of the cosmos and the principle was in the mind, they did not give mind the ultimate status and position.“There is no mind outside things, and there is no things outside the mind.”36Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers, 263.So the mind was given only cosmological meaning, making it a physical matter as the basis or source of existence but not the ultimate origin of existence.According to the Cheng brothers, the ultimate origin is principle.From this point of view, the Cheng brothers’theory is different from Lu Jiuyuan’s 陸九淵 (Lu Xiangshan 陸象山, 1139—1193) and Wang Yangming’s philosophy of mind.

‘Principle Is in My Mind’: The Southern Song Neo-Confucian Philosophy of Mind [57]

According to traditional notions of existence, existence is the activity ofqi.Zhu Xi said, “The physicalqicomes along with what Heaven has conferred, and the two are inseparable.If one is absent, there are no living beings.”37Li Jingde 黎靖德, ed., Classifi ed Conversations of Master Zhu [朱子語類], vol.4 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1986), 64.Human beings are born with nature andqi.Innateqiis the basic guarantee for human existence.“The nature given by Heaven is the same.However, the physicalqimay be different, varying at different level....So-called evil is a kind ofqi.”38Ibid., 64—65.People are classifi ed into sages and fools due to their gifts, so the constitution with which one is born into the world is not to be relied upon.

Zhu Xi inherited the thought of the Cheng brothers and used the concept of the principle of Heaven to guarantee the reliability and legitimacy of the physical activity.Principle is present throughout existence.“Where there are things, there is the principle.”39Ibid., 61.Any activity or existence is inseparable from the principle.“The Heaven-endowed is like an order.The inherent nature is the principle.Heaven has produced the myriad things withyin-yangand the fi ve elements, shaped them withqi, and given them the principle, a kind of Heaven-endowed order.Due to their various endowments with principle, human beings and things come into being.”40Zhu Xi 朱熹, Commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean [中庸章句], in Collected Commentaries on the Four Books [四書章句集注] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), 19.When the human beings and things are created, they are naturally endowed with the principle.This natural principle is the inherent nature.For human beings, this principle transforms into human nature.“The principle is the ‘order’of Heaven, and the ‘nature’ of human beings.”41Li, Classifi ed Conversations of Master Zhu, vol.5, 83.Human beings are born not only with a physical body but also with a legitimate principle.This principle is the innate nature of human beings.It is this supreme Heavenly principle that ultimately determines the rationality and legitimacy of human beings.That is to say, only the physical activities that accord with the Heavenly principle are reasonable ones.Thus the principle becomes the ultimate basis and determiner of proper behavior.

Although Zhu Xi emphasized investigating things, inquiring into principle, and exploring the principle of Heaven, he did not deny that the Heavenly principle is in themind.The mind consists of two parts: the metaphysical nature and the physicalqi.The metaphysical nature is the principle.Zhu asserted, “The nature is the principle of the mind and the mind is where the principle is.”42Li, Classifi ed Conversations of Master Zhu, vol.5, 88.“Is there anything outside nature in the world that is not disciplined by the principle in the mind? When it comes to the principle, it is shared by the world and does not belong to oneself.That the principle is in the mind means that there is the principle in the body.”43Zhu Xi, Complete Works of Master Zhu [朱子全書], book 23, eds.Zhu Jieren 朱杰人 et al.(Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House; Hefei: Anhui Educational Publishing House, 2002), 2740.This principle, though prevalent in the myriad things of Heaven and earth, is embodied in the mind as the nature.Thus there is innate principle in the physical mind.This means that “the principle is in my mind.”44Ibid., 2741.This principle in mind, according to Confucianism, is the nature of benevolence and righteousness, a nature with which one is born.The mind of an individual person has not only the physical nature but also the metaphysical nature, which is also called a transcendent principle.Since there is a principle in the mind, the mind is the principle.This is the core position of the Lu—Wang philosophy of mind.From this perspective, “It can be said that Zhu Xi’s theory is completely a rigorous and grand study of the mind.”45Qian Mu 錢穆, A New Study of Master Zhu [朱子新學案], book 2 (Beijing: Jiuzhou Press, 2011), 89.Zhu Xi’s whole philosophy is veritably a philosophy of mind, not fundamentally different from Lu’s and Wang’s.In other words, from an ontological point of view, Zhu Xi’s theory is also a theory of mind, wherein the inner principle or nature is the basis of the existence of the cosmos.

Principle Is Mind: The Lu-Wang Philosophy of Mind [58]

From a cosmological perspective, the proposition that “principle is in the mind” means that the mind with the Heavenly principle is the ultimate origin or master of the existence of the cosmos.This is Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming’s view of mind.The Lu—Wang school of mind agrees with traditional Neo-Confucianism, which believed that the principle is the determiner of the existence of things in the cosmos.Lu Jiuyuan argued, “This principle is in the cosmos, and nothing can escape from it.The reason why Heaven and Earth can be the Heaven and Earth is that they follow this principle and are altruistic.”46Lu Jiuyuan 陸九淵, Complete Works of Lu Xiangshan [陸象山全集] (Beijing: China Bookstore Press, 1992), 10.Here the principle of the cosmos is the basis or master of the existence of the cosmos.This master is not only an empirical entity but also an ultimate one.This could be called “the ultimate.” “The ultimate is the principle, and centrality is also the principle....Both refer to the principle.The principle could be named the ultimate, centrality, or the utmost.Actually, these refer to the same thing.”47Ibid., 19.The principle is ultimacy and the ultimate existence.The principle is the ultimate origin, basis, or dominator of the existence of things between Heaven and Earth.Wang Yangming said, “The mind is by nature the embodiment of Heavenly principle.It is this and no more.How can there be anything else to think about or to deliberate on?”48Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living II” [傳習錄中], vol.2 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 58.The Heavenly principle, as the way of existence for the integrated unity of the myriad things,exists universally in all the things in the cosmos.

This ultimate and dominant principle was categorized by the Lu—Wang school as belonging to the realm of mind:

Benevolence is the mind, and so is the principle.If you ask for it, you will get this principle.A prophet knows this, and the forerunner feels this.This is true for those wholove their relatives.This is true for those respectful to their brothers.This is also true for those who have the feeling of compassion for the child who is about to fall into a well.This is also true for those who shame the shameful and hate the hateful.49Lu, Complete Works of Lu Xiangshan, 3.

Love, respect, evil, and righteousness all originate from the mind or principle.The principle,the basis of things and matters, exists in the mind.Wang Yangming named the Heavenly principle intuitive knowledge (liangzhi良知).“The intuitive knowledge in the mind is the so-called principle of Heaven.”50Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living II,” 45.Thus the principle of things is transformed into the principle of mind, and therefore “the mind is principle.”51Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living I” [傳習錄上], vol.1 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 2.The principle of Heaven is the mind.The mind has two connotations, namely, the transcendent mind and the physical mind.The transcendent mind and the principle are the same, while the physical mind contains the principle of the world.This is the basic viewpoint of the Lu—Wang philosophy of mind.

From a cosmological perspective, in the narrow sense of Zhu Xi’s theory of principle and Wang Yangming’s theory of mind, there is almost no great difference.In Zhu Xi’s view,the principle of Heaven is the ultimate basis for the existence of the cosmos.This principle of Heaven exists not only in everything in the cosmos, but also in the mind.Human beings also have principle in their minds, which is the nature.From this perspective, the mind is principle.However, Zhu Xi did not specify this view clearly, while Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming explicated.The difference between the two lies mainly in whether they are clearly explicated or not.In other words, Zhu Xi’s theory was identical with Wang Yangming’s, only with different use of conceptions.Zhu Xi did not put forward the concept or notion that the mind is principle.We can even say that the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi is the rudiment of the study of the mind, while Wang Yangming’s philosophy of mind is the mature form of Neo-Confucianism.In the development of study of the mind, Zhu Xi’s study is an indispensable part.At this stage, Zhu’s and Wang’s theories about the dominating power of the cosmos changed from the external principle of Heaven to the inner mind.Human beings and human mind eventually became the real dominators of the cosmos.From the perspective of ideological history, Song—Ming Neo-Confucianism fulfi lled its historical mission: human beings fi nally became the ruler of Heaven and Earth.From the perspective of philosophy, Neo-Confucians also fulfi lled their historical mission of speculative philosophy: to have found out the ultimate basis for the existence of the cosmos.As the mind becomes the ruler of the cosmos, the connotation of the study of mind has evolved accordingly.It is no longer a concept of Buddhism, but the most important concept of Confucianism.Therefore, many Ming dynasty scholars proposed the coincidence of the philosophy of the sages and the study of mind.So, the traditional Confucianism reached its peak in the study of mind.

Conclusion: A Logic behind the History of the Study of Mind [59]

Traditional Chinese Confucian philosophy is a philosophy of life.It focuses on how to live a good and proper life.The way to live a good and proper life isdao, the Way.Therefore,the Way was the major concern for the thinkers and philosophers of all dynasties of ancient China.Confucius said, “If a man in the morning hears the Way, he may die in the evening without regret” (Analects4:8).Xunzi proposed that a gentleman (junzi君子) should “follow the dictates of the Way rather than those of his lord” (Xunzi, “On the Way of Sons” [子道]).Knowing and following the Way is the ultimate pursuit of Confucianism.The Way is the proper approach.How to practice and follow the Way? Zhu Xi said, “The Way of governance must be based on rectifying the mind and self-cultivation, and being honest, and then acting accordingly.”52Li, Classifi ed Conversations of Master Zhu, vol.108, 2686.The Way of governance lies in a good mind.Only by having a good mind will action will be proper.The mind is the basis of proper human behavior.

The philosophies of Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi in the pre-Qin period, the Confucianism of the Han, the Dark Learning of the Wei—Jin, and the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming together form an integral, logically unfolding process of philosophizing about mind.Confucius started this study of mind, and the “Great Learning” laid the foundation for it and established the mind as source.Mencius and Xunzi sought to explain mind in terms of human nature, and in so doing they not only initiated the search for sources but also turned the study of mind into the study of human nature, and thus they pioneered theoretical thinking about the nature of humanity.Han Confucianism highlighted the role and value of the mind of action, and Dark Learning scholars of the Wei—Jin period criticized the cognitive function of the mind and highlighted its biological nature.With the advent of the theory of the unity of Heaven and Humanity, Zhang Zai proposed “to establish the mind of Heaven and Earth,” and the Cheng brothers taught that the mind of Heaven and Earth is principle and thus established the ultimate status of the principle of Heaven for existence.Zhu Xi, while admitting that people are born with innate nature and principle, emphasized investigating things outside the physical body and inquiring into principle.And though Wang Yangming acknowledged an eternal principle of Heaven and Earth, he also held that intuitive knowledge in the mind is the principle of Heaven, thus giving to human beings the ultimate power to dominate the cosmos and demonstrating the subjectivity of human beings from the height of speculative philosophy.Where the philosophy of mind is concerned, the philosophers from Confucius to Wang Yangming comprised a complete logical process of philosophical development.In this sense, the history of Confucian philosophy is a history of the study of mind.

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