China’s Diplomacy in Central Asia:Progress,Experiences and Approaches

Deng Hao

The year 2022 marks the 30th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and five Central Asian countries. Over the past 30 years， China has always viewed Central Asia as a preferred region for conducting neighborly diplomacy. That is why China has consistently implemented a policy of fostering a harmonious， secure and prosperous neighborhood， actively practiced a new type of international relations based on mutual respect， fairness， justice and win-win cooperation， and vigorously promoted the building of a China-Central Asia community with a shared future. These combined efforts have improved the strategic situation and the security environment in western China， promoted stability and development of Central Asian countries， played a showcase role for countries to live in harmony and pursue win-win cooperation， and made the China-Central Asia relationship a highlight of Chinas neighborhood diplomacy. At present， the world has entered a period of turbulence and transformation， with a growing deficit in governance， trust， development， and peace. Regional conditions are also undergoing complex and profound changes， where the COVID-19 pandemic， the dramatic situation in Afghanistan and the Russia-Ukraine conflict are intertwined and overlapping. Competition among major countries is intensifying and a new wave of nationalism is emerging.

In this context， it is of great practical and theoretical value to study and analyze the progress， successful experience， and future direction of Chinas three-decade diplomacy in Central Asia. This will help to guarantee steady and sustained support for Chinas major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics， and ensure the sound， solid and durable development of the relationship between China and Central Asian countries. It will also provide a useful reference and inspiration for addressing the challenges of the times and for building a new type of international relations and a community with a shared future for mankind.

Major Achievements

Shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union， China immediately recognized the independence of five Central Asian countries and established diplomatic relations with Uzbekistan， Kazakhstan， Tajikistan， Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan in January 1992， marking the beginning of Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia. For 30 years， China has consistently attached great importance to its diplomatic relationship with central Asian countries. They are regarded as an important platform to promote relations among major countries， to develop peripheral and multilateral diplomacy， and to deepen cooperation with developing countries. As fresh ideas of Chinas diplomacy constantly provide new gripper and impetus， the relationship runs at a high level and sustains its upward momentum.

The progress China has made in its diplomacy with Central Asian countries over the past three decades can be seen in the formation of three pillars： the Shanghai Cooperation Organization （SCO）， the Silk Road Economic Belt， and the China+Central Asia （“C+C5”） mechanism， which have driven and consolidated the robust and rapid development of Chinas relations with Central Asian countries.

The establishment and operation of SCO is an important milestone in Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia. The relationship between China and Central Asian countries made a leap from bilateral to multilateral diplomacy， which then reached a new level of parallel development and mutual promotion.

Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia started from the establishment of bilateral political relations with Central Asian countries， with political cooperation as the main focus in the early stage. First， not long after the independence of Central Asian countries， China and Central Asian countries signed a series of bilateral joint statements through high-level visits， which identified the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence as the basic principles of bilateral relations， providing political and legal guarantees for goodneighborliness and friendly cooperation. Second， in the spirit of friendly consultation， mutual understanding and mutual accommodation， China took the initiative to negotiate with Central Asian neighboring countries to solve the historically disputed border issues in an effort to increase political mutual trust. In April 1994， China and Kazakhstan signed the first formal border agreement1 between China and its Central Asian neighboring countries， which represented an important step towards complete settlement of the historical questions about contested land boundaries. Third， China took practical measures to dispel doubts and concerns of Central Asian countries about China and played the role of a responsible major country. In February 1995， China formally made a security commitment to Kazakhstan， announcing that it would never use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against Kazakhstan.2 This move was widely welcomed by Central Asian countries. Fourth， China actively supported Central Asian countriesinitiatives aimed at maintaining regional stability and peace， strengthened coordination in international and regional affairs， and strived for the understanding and support of Central Asian countries on issues related to Taiwan， Tibet， and Xinjiang. In the early days of independence， Central Asian countries put forward their own initiatives， such as Kazakhstans initiative to hold the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia （CICA）， Uzbekistans planning of the Tashkent Forum on Security and Cooperation in Central Asia， Kyrgyzstans organization of the Issyk-Kul Forum， Turkmenistans application to the UN for status of permanent neutrality， etc. China has been firmly supporting and actively participating in the above initiatives， which is highly appreciated by Central Asian countries.

The Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions3 signed by China， Russia， Kazakhstan， Kyrgyzstan， and Tajikistan in April 1996 marks the beginning of the “Shanghai Five” mechanism， predecessor of the SCO， and the prelude to multilateral cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. In 1997， these five countries signed the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions，4 which opened a new era of peace and stable development in the border areas between China and Central Asian countries. Since April 1997， the bilateral negotiations between China and the above-mentioned four Central Asian countries have transitioned to multilateral ones， and their cooperation has gradually expanded from border security to regional security and economic cooperation， thus endowing their relationship with the genuine character of regional cooperation. In 2000， the President of Uzbekistan was invited to the “Shanghai Five” Summit as an observer， which extended Chinas cooperation with Central Asian countries to Uzbekistan.

Parallel to exploring multilateral cooperation， China has further expanded bilateral cooperation with Central Asian countries， with the energy sector becoming a new driving force. In September 1997， China and Kazakhstan signed a project contract in which China agreed to operate Kazakhstans Zhanazhol Oilfield， Kenkiyak Oilfield and Uzen Oilfield， and additionally build a 3，000-km-long oil pipeline between Kazakhstan and China.5 This series of projects marked the extension of bilateral relations between China and Central Asian countries from political cooperation to energy， economic and trade cooperation.

The establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization on June 15， 2001， heralded a new era of Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia and greatly enhanced Chinas influence on Central Asian affairs， creating favorable conditions for China to become one of the protagonists in the strategic pattern of Central Asia. The SCO is of great significance to promoting China-Central Asia relations. First， cooperation between China and Central Asian countries has been incorporated into the framework of multilateral organizations， providing a stable and reliable regional mechanism for bilateral cooperation. Second， the SCO has made it legitimate for China to enter the multilateral stage of Central Asia and to participate in Central Asian affairs. Third， under the mechanism of the SCO， China and Russia have been propelled to coexist peacefully and strengthen cooperation in Central Asia， effectively avoiding direct confrontation and harmful competition between the two countries in Central Asia， thus minimizing the potential constraints of Russian factors on Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia.

After the establishment of the SCO， the relationship between China and Central Asian countries improved in a comprehensive manner and reached in a new peak. Politically， before the initiative of the Silk Road Economic Belt was put forward in 2013， the relationship between China and Central Asian countries had already been upgraded from friendly cooperation to strategic partnership. Central Asia has become the only region in the world where all countries within the region are Chinas strategic partners， which illustrates the high level of political cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. Economically， China has become a major economic and trade partner and source of investment for Central Asian countries. In 2013， the total trade volume between China and Central Asian countries hit a new high of $50.183 billion， nearly 100 times higher than that at the beginning of the establishment of diplomatic relations.6 And by the same year， China had become the largest trading partner of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan， the second largest trading partner of Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan， and the third largest trading partner of Tajikistan. By the end of 2012， Chinas FDI stock in five Central Asian countries had reached $7.82 billion，7 Kazakhstan had become Chinas third largest investment destination， and China had become Uzbekistans largest source of investment. It is particularly noteworthy that with the construction and operation of the China-Kazakhstan oil pipeline in 2005 and the China-Central Asia natural gas pipeline in 2009， China became the second largest export market of oil in Kazakhstan and the largest buyer of natural gas in Turkmenistan， rising to be a decisive player on the Central Asian energy market. In the fields of people-to-people and cultural exchanges， the establishment and operation of Confucius Institutes in Central Asian countries and the successes in recruiting a large number of foreign students from Central Asia have led to an increase in enthusiasm about China in the region. At the same time， the exchanges between the two sides in culture， archaeology， tourism， health care and other related fields have developed rapidly， showing great potential.

The proposal and implementation of the Silk Road Economic Belt initiative marks a new and promising stage for Chinese diplomacy that provides a comprehensive， systematic and clear strategic vision， defines the main tasks and basic objectives for the new period， and prompts China to carry out bilateral and multilateral cooperation with Central Asian countries in a larger scope and at higher and deeper levels.

In September 2013， Chinese President Xi Jinping put forward the Silk Road Economic Belt initiative during his visit to Kazakhstan. This marked another major milestone in Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia， highlighting the important position of Central Asia in Chinas diplomacy， and elevating the relationship between the two sides to new heights of strategic cooperation. The importance of the initiative for promoting China-Central Asia cooperation is mainly reflected in three aspects. First， China and Central Asian countries have been endowed with new tasks for cooperation. These include upholding the Silk Road spirit of “peace， cooperation， openness， inclusiveness， mutual learning and mutual benefit，” adhering to the principle of extensive consultation， joint contribution and shared benefits， exploring new regional cooperation models with the concept of win-win cooperation as the core， tackling bottleneck issues in cooperation， promoting the formation of regional markets， creating an open， inclusive， balanced and mutually beneficial cooperation framework， and realizing the sustainable and benign development of bilateral cooperation. Second， cooperation between China and Central Asian countries was provided with new momentum. The initiative vigorously advocates interconnectivity by transforming Central Asia into a land-based passage connecting China and Europe， and finally linking the globally significant economic centers of East Asia and Europe. These measures will give prominence to the advantages of Central Asia as a strategic bridge connecting the East and West， especially by linking landlocked Central Asian countries to the outside world and granting them access to the sea， thus providing new opportunities for cooperation between the two sides. Interconnectivity also includes soft connectivity， which requires China and Central Asian countries to realize the combination of policies， systems， technologies， and standards in the process of cooperation. Third， the initiative has set new goals for cooperation between China and Central Asian countries， i.e.， building the China-Central Asia community with a shared future through the construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt to share mutual interests， shoulder joint responsibility and realize a common destiny.

In the seven years from the launch of the Silk Road Economic Belt initiative in 2013 to the establishment of the “C+C5” foreign ministersmeeting mechanism in July 2020， China and Central Asian countries have reaped many early rewards in jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt， which has boosted Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia to a new peak and set an example for the construction of the Belt and Road initiative.

Firstly， the strategic cooperation between China and Central Asian countries has been significantly strengthened， political mutual trust has substantially improved， and policy communication has reached an unprecedented level. Since the initiative was proposed， China has signed cooperation documents on jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt with all Central Asian countries. The first of these is the cooperation outline that China and Kazakhstan signed in 2016 on docking Chinas Silk Road Economic Belt with Kazakhstans new economic policy of the “Bright Road，”thus giving the relationship between China and Central Asian countries a profound strategic upgrade.

Secondly， the practical cooperation between China and Central Asian countries in jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt has yielded fruitful results. To begin with， their cooperation in the construction of transportation infrastructure has greatly improved the traffic situation in Central Asia. For example， the opening and operation of the China-Europe and China-Central Asia freight train services makes clear the potential of Central Asia for transport， helping countries in the region gain access to the sea. Chinas construction of Uzbekistans Anglian-Papu Electrified Railway connects the remote Fergana valley with the central area of Uzbekistan. The China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan highway， the China-TajikistanUzbekistan international road and the high-voltage power transmission and transformation projects implemented by China in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have all greatly improved the connectivity of facilities in Central Asia. As of 2019， the China-Kazakhstan oil pipeline had transported 119 million tons of crude oil to China， and the China-Central Asia natural gas pipeline had supplied about 300 billion cubic meters of gas to China. Energy cooperation has become the most impressive part of cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. Besides， their economic and trade cooperation has reached a new level. Since the construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt， China has been the main trading partner of Central Asian countries， accounting for 10-20% of the total foreign trade volume of Central Asian countries.8 In 2020， bucking the downward trend brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic， China maintained its position as the largest trading partner of Uzbekistan， Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan， and surged to the largest export market of Kazakhstan. Under the framework of the Silk Road Economic Belt， Chinas investment in Central Asian countries has achieved rapid growth， with a cumulative investment of more than 30 billion US dollars. China and Kazakhstan have listed key cooperation projects with a total amount of 27 billion US dollars， making Kazakhstan the third largest destination of Chinas overseas investment. For Uzbekistan， Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan， China has become their top source of FDI， with Chinese investment accounting for over 40% of the total FDI in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Moreover， new progress has been made in the integration of their financial sectors. China has signed currency swap agreements with five Central Asian countries， and UnionPay cards can be used in Kazakhstan， Uzbekistan， Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Through the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank， the Silk Road Fund， and the China-Eurasia Economic Cooperation Fund， China has provided strong financial support for connectivity construction and production capacity cooperation in Central Asian countries.

Thirdly， the people-to-people bonds are advancing rapidly. By 2020， China had established 13 Confucius Institutes and 22 Confucius Classrooms in Central Asia， and overseas students from Central Asian countries had surpassed 30，000 in China.9 Through joint efforts of China， Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan， “Silk Roads： the Routes Network of Changan-Tianshan Corridor” has successfully been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list. Cooperation in tourism has become a new growth point in people-to-people and cultural cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. Kazakhstan has held the “China Tourism Year，” and Uzbekistan has implemented a visa-free policy for tourists from China.

The establishment and operation of the “C+C5” cooperation mechanism represents new and significant progress in Chinas diplomacy toward Central Asia， marking that the multilateral cooperation between China and Central Asian countries have become institutionalized， and that bilateral cooperation has entered a new period of deep integration and development.

The first “C+C5” foreign ministers meeting was held via video link in July 2020 as a mechanism solely dedicated to multilateral cooperation between China and five Central Asian countries， setting a new milestone in Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia. This mechanism is the inevitable outcome of the deepened and internally driven relationship between China and Central Asian countries.

First， the relationship between China and Central Asian countries itself needs to be upgraded. Although the SCO is an important platform for cooperation between China and Central Asian countries， it is incomplete due to the lack of Turkmenistans membership. The SCO itself is not specially designed for cooperation between China and Central Asian countries， and the Silk Road Economic Belt initiative， although it was proposed in Central Asia and takes it as the core area， is not exclusive to that region. In this context， the establishment of a special mechanism for cooperation between China and Central Asian countries corresponds to the requirements of the time and meets the necessary practical needs. Second， the joint construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt needs a corresponding guarantee mechanism. After all， the Silk Road Economic Belt is only an initiative， and its implementation in Central Asia needs far more than bilateral channels. Therefore， it is urgent to supplement it with a new implementation mechanism. Although the SCO can play a corresponding role， its effectiveness as a platform for the Silk Road Economic Belt has been greatly reduced due to the increased internal heterogeneity after the expansion， the intensification of contradictions among some member states， and the limitations of the SCOs own decision-making mechanism. Against such a backdrop， the establishment of a special “5+1” mechanism helps to promote the construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt in Central Asia more effectively. Third， the establishment of this mechanism is also an indispensable requirement for the new situation. The autonomy of Central Asian countries has significantly improved in recent years. The leaders summits of five Central Asian countries have been held very frequently， expressing their strong desire for joint self-improvement and highlighting the regional demands of Central Asia. This objectively requires that China and Central Asian countries let their cooperation be based on a holistic vision and a common position. The “5+1” mechanism can to a certain extent be regarded as the positive outcome of Central Asias joint process of self-improvement. Moreover， the United States， Russia， India， Japan and other major countries have established their own “5+1” mechanisms in this region. Central Asian countries generally pursue a balance of power strategy and are eager to see benign interaction between major powers. In that sense， the“5+1” mechanism between China and five Central Asian countries meets the aspirations and needs of the latter. Fourth， China has rich experience in establishing similar mechanisms. Chinas diplomatic practices in the ChinaCentral and Eastern European Countries Cooperation Mechanism， also known as the “17+1，” and the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation mechanism provide an important reference for the “5+1” mechanism between China and Central Asia.

The foreign ministers meeting mechanism of “C+C5” has injected new vitality into the cooperation between China and Central Asian countries， bringing their relationship to a new height after the SCO and the Silk Road Economic Belt.

Over the past three years， the cooperation mechanism of “C+C5” has been constantly upgraded， and many of its aspects have been continuously expanded， illustrating its great potential and broad prospects. It has brought about new achievements in the cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. It is particularly worth mentioning that during the third “C+C5” foreign ministers meeting held in the Kazakh capital of Nur-Sultan in June 2022， all participants unanimously agreed to establish a mechanism for the heads of state to hold summits in the “C+C5”format. This will be the first “5+1” summit mechanism established in Central Asia， which fully demonstrated the high level of relations between China and Central Asian countries and the strong appeal of Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia. Driven by the “C+C5” cooperation mechanism， China and Central Asian countries have strengthened highlevel communication and exchanges， provided mutual support， and united their efforts in constructing a healthy， green， and digital silk road， highlighting the sense of sharing a common destiny. At the virtual summit to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Central Asian countries， leaders from the two sides reviewed their cooperation process over the past three decades and jointly drew a blueprint for their future cooperation. On the occasion of the Beijing 2022 Olympic Winter Games， leaders of all five Central Asian countries attended the opening ceremony， which fully demonstrated that the China-Central Asia community with a shared future and their special friendship are going on in full swing. In recent years， although the COVID-19 pandemic brought some difficulties and challenges to the economic and trade cooperation between China and Central Asian countries， their bilateral trade has stabilized and rebounded， and their practical cooperation has shown great resilience. All this is due to the continuous promotion of the Belt and Road Initiative， the strong recovery of Chinas economy and the higher level of opening-up.

Basic Experiences

Over the past three decades， China has made rapid progress and achieved leapfrog development in its diplomacy towards Central Asia. Its successful experiences are mainly reflected in the following four aspects.

Treating each other equally and maintaining good faith

Five Central Asian countries used to be part of the Soviet Union. Affected by the deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations， they once became the anti-China outposts of the Soviet Union. With the collapse of the Soviet Union， tensions between the two sides started to ease. However， influenced by the Soviet Unions long-term anti-China propaganda and the Western countries anti-China public opinion， the newly independent Central Asian countries still had major reservations about China. In addition， Central Asian countries floundered after independence， while China has been prospering， which fueled the caution of Central Asian countries toward China. Thus， the“China Threat Theory” and the “China Expansion Theory” sprang up from time to time.

As a countermeasure to eliminate Central Asian countries doubts and create a friendly atmosphere， China has resolutely implemented a foreign policy for an “amicable， secure and prosperous neighborhood” with an attitude of sincere friendship and fair treatment. China has adhered to the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence， constantly deepened political mutual trust with Central Asian countries， actively dissolved the “China Threat Theory” and the “China Expansion Theory，” and created a friendly， sincere， righteous and credible image of China.

First， China has always firmly supported Central Asian countries in safeguarding their independence and sovereignty. Autonomy was the basic demand of Central Asian countries after independence. They all treasure their independence and sovereignty and are highly wary of foreign forces entering Central Asia， fearing that the region might fall victim to great power struggles. In view of this， China fully respects Central Asian countriesindependent choice of their development path， and never makes critical remarks about their internal affairs. China has no intention of turning Central Asia into its own sphere of influence， nor has it attempted to change the political nature of Central Asian countries， let alone impose its own ideology. It has become the staunchest and most trusted supporter of Central Asian countries independence and sovereignty. Second， China adheres to the principle of equal treatment between big and small nations， never bullying the weak or the small. Nor does China give orders to Central Asian countries or force them to choose sides. On the contrary， China provides development assistance to Central Asian countries without attaching any political conditions， and fully acknowledges the self-esteem and comfort of Central Asian countries. Third， as part of its peaceful foreign policy， China resolves its border and water resources utilization issues with Central Asian countries through peaceful consultations. To remove Central Asian countries security concerns， China took active measures like making the security commitment to Kazakhstan that it would never use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against the latter.10 With regard to the contradictions， differences and conflicts among Central Asian countries， China as a responsible major country firmly opposes the resort to force， and instead advocates the countries concerned to solve any problems through peaceful negotiations and consultations. Fourth， China helps Central Asian countries safeguard their national security by resolutely opposing the interference of external forces into their internal affairs. To that effect， China supports Central Asian countries in combating the “three evil forces” of terrorism， separatism and extremism and in preventing “Color Revolutions.”

Keeping pace with the times and consolidating the foundation

Since the independence of Central Asian countries， China has always adjusted its policy towards Central Asia in accordance with the changing situation and the practical needs， so as to keep pace with the times and reality. From political cooperation to all-round cooperation in politics， security， economy and culture， from bilateral cooperation to dual emphasis on bilateral and multilateral cooperation， from good-neighborly friendship to strategic partnership， from the SCO and the Silk Road Economic Belt to the “C+C5” cooperation mechanism， Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia is on the road of continuous innovation and upgrading， maintaining fresh vitality and inexhaustible power. At the same time， China regards institutional construction as a fundamental policy to ensure that Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia is stable and far-reaching. From 2002 to 2007， China successively signed the Treaty of GoodNeighborliness and Friendly Cooperation with Kyrgyzstan， Kazakhstan， Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In August 2007， China， Russia， Kazakhstan， Kyrgyzstan， Tajikistan and Uzbekistan signed the Treaty on Long-term Good Neighborliness， Friendship and Cooperation among SCO member states. These treaties laid a solid legal foundation for China and Central Asian countries to maintain friendly ties over the coming generations and never to be hostile to each other again. Under the SCO framework， China has also signed a series of legal documents on political， security， economic and cultural cooperation with Central Asian countries， further consolidating the institutional foundation of bilateral cooperation.

Seeking mutual benefit and win-win results through targeted solutions

In developing its relations with Central Asian countries， China has always adhered to the principle of mutual benefit and win-win results， fully taken into account the interests and concerns of Central Asian countries， attached importance to customized implementation instead of one-size-fitsall approaches， and made strong efforts to practice the principles of extensive consultation， joint contribution， and shared benefits. In the early days of their independence， Central Asian countries did not have their own selfreliant and complete national defense capability. Due to the collapse of the Soviet Union， all Central Asian countries had to shoulder the responsibility of safeguarding their own national security. This undoubtedly put great pressure on the newly independent countries， which were eager for stability in their surrounding areas. In this context， China pursued a good-neighborly and friendly policy， and actively negotiated with Central Asian countries to solve boundary issues and to jointly combat the “three evil forces.” These measures gave due consideration to the security concerns of Central Asian countries and at the same time fully met the practical needs of China to ensure stability on its western border.

Getting rid of the shackles of a merely resource-based economy and embarking on the road of industrialization and development have always been the priority and a great challenge for Central Asian countries after independence. Therefore， China has always regarded supporting the economic development of Central Asian countries and promoting regional prosperity as an important part of its diplomacy towards Central Asia. This is not only in line with Central Asian countries fundamental interests and public expectations， but also conducive to the economic revitalization and longterm stability of West China， especially the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region. Therefore， China has vigorously strengthened wide-ranging energy cooperation with Central Asian countries， actively providing funds and technology to help these countries develop a domestic energy industry and improve their production capacity， and providing a vast， reliable and stable energy import market. At the same time， China has helped Central Asian countries solve connectivity and infrastructure problems that have plagued them for many years， making up for their lack of access to the ocean.

Over the past 30 years， China has taken the right course in terms of fairness and interests， provided a substantial amount of development assistance to Central Asian countries， actively helped Central Asian countries alleviate economic and humanitarian difficulties， and enhanced Chinas national image in Central Asia.

Abandoning Cold War mentality and properly handling majorcountry relations

Since their independence， Central Asian countries have generally carried out a balance-of-power diplomacy from the perspective of safeguarding their own interests. They hope that external forces can create peaceful competition in Central Asia so as to seek benefits from both sides. Against this background， China resolutely rejects any Cold War mentality and does not engage in a “zero-sum game.” China has publicly declared that it will not establish its own sphere of influence or participate in geopolitical competition in Central Asia， and that it is willing to carry out constructive cooperation with other major countries to jointly safeguard the stability and development of Central Asia.

For instance， China has always respected Russias traditional influence and practical interests in Central Asia and has kept good communication with Russia. From mutual coordination to solve the border security issues to the establishment of the “Shanghai Five” mechanism and the SCO， SinoRussian cooperation in Central Asia has systematically been institutionalized， creating favorable conditions for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia. In May 2015， top leaders of China and Russia signed joint declarations on integrating the construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the framework of the Eurasian Economic Union （EAEU）. And in May 2018， China and the EAEU signed an agreement on trade and economic cooperation， the first major systematic arrangement ever reached between the two sides. Later that year， Chinas Ministry of Commerce and the Economic Development Ministry of the Russian Federation completed the feasibility study of the Eurasian Economic Partnership Agreement. These events signaled that the two sides entered a new realm of institutional cooperation in Central Asia， which provided guarantees for China-Russia cooperation. In recent years， the United States has characterized China and Russia as strategic competitors and has carried out double containment and suppression against China and Russia. Objectively speaking， this offense has brought China and Russia closer and prompted the two sides to further strengthen cooperation in Central Asia. All this has created even more favorable conditions for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia and minimized potential constraints of Russian factors.

At the same time， China is also committed to maintaining peaceful coexistence with other major countries in Central Asia， actively advocating and practicing the principles of non-alignment， non-confrontation and nontargeting of any third party， strictly following the new security concept that seeks to avoid confrontation and harmful competition. Based on the reality that multiple governance mechanisms and schemes coexist in Central Asia， China has actively advocated the Belt and Road Initiative that upholds the concept of “friendly consultation， mutual understanding and mutual accommodation，” promoted the construction of a new type of international relations and a community with a shared future for mankind， while emphasizing mutual respect， mutual benefit and win-win results， shared security and safety， and inclusive development. These efforts provided a new path and new hope for the peaceful coexistence of major countries in Central Asia， minimized the pressure on regional countries to “choose sides，” and played a positive role in establishing a new type of relations between major countries in Central Asia and curbing the risk of geopolitical conflicts.

Opportunities and Challenges

Generally speaking， the positive factors conducive to Chinas promotion of Central Asian diplomacy far outweigh the negative ones. Ample opportunities still lie ahead for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia.

Multiple Opportunities for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia

First， the impressive progress China made in its diplomacy toward Central Asia has laid a solid foundation.

During the past three decades， political ties between China and Central Asian countries have enabled both sides to realize a complete strategic partnership， establish profound mutual trust， and provide reliable political guarantees for China to promote Central Asian diplomacy in the future. China has signed treaties on good-neighborliness， friendship and cooperation with Central Asian countries， providing legal support for them to be good neighbors， friends and partners indefinitely. The two sides hold the same or similar positions on international and regional issues， which greatly contributed to Chinas promotion of Central Asian diplomacy.

In terms of security， China and Central Asian countries have completely settled the border issues that were a remnant of history through peaceful negotiations and have fully restored their border security. Upholding the new security concept featuring common， comprehensive， cooperative and sustainable security， China has effectively responded to various nontraditional security threats through bilateral and multilateral cooperation with Central Asian countries， providing organizational guarantees and expertise so that both sides can deal with common threats and maintain regional stability in the future.

Economically， China and Central Asian countries have joined forces to promote high-quality Belt and Road cooperation， to improve connectivity， and to develop the digital economy， artificial intelligence and e-commerce， laying a solid foundation for future practical cooperation.

As for people-to-people and cultural exchanges， China and Central Asian countries have reaped benefits in various fields and are constantly exploring more opportunities for cooperation， creating favorable conditions for both sides to further strengthen people-to-people contacts.

Second， the situation in Central Asia is generally controllable and is expected to remain basically stable， providing a reliable environment for China to promote its regional diplomacy.

Over the past three decades， the Central Asian region has essentially maintained a peaceful and stable environment despite sporadic turmoil. Although Central Asia might encounter various challenges in the future， the overall situation is manageable. As Central Asian countries have conquered many obstacles since their independence， their ability to control the situation and uphold stability has greatly benefitted， and their domestic and foreign policies have become more comprehensive and reliable. They have also taken precautionary measures against various hidden dangers and opposition forces， providing a strong guarantee for the stability of Central Asian countries and the region as a whole. Their economies have greatly improved when compared with the beginning of independence and have over time gained much more resilience. Although conflicts caused by border and ethnic issues have occasionally arisen between regional countries， they were far from out of control. China and Russia have carried out regional strategic cooperation on the platform of the SCO， which has become an important guarantee for regional stability. Central Asian countries generally follow a balance-of-power policy assuming that major countries would carry out fair competition， which is also conducive to the formation of a well-balanced and multi-polar pattern of interaction in this region. In the future， Central Asia is expected to maintain stability， which undoubtedly provides a favorable space for China to promote its diplomacy in Central Asia.

Third， China and Central Asian countries have good prospects for development， which provides sufficient impetus for China to promote its diplomacy in Central Asia.

In 2018， five Central Asian countries restarted multilateral cooperation among themselves. So far， they have held three summits and reached consensus in many aspects. The increasingly apparent results of their cooperation have highlighted the unity and autonomy of Central Asian countries， providing important opportunities for China to promote cooperation with Central Asian countries under the framework of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the “C+C5” cooperation mechanism. At the same time， all Central Asian countries have launched their own medium and long-term development strategies， demonstrating their confidence and determination regarding future development. These countries are actively improving their investment environment， developing a legal framework for their economies， accelerating opening up to the outside world， and working to revitalize the economy， which provides strong impulses for cooperation between China and Central Asian countries.

With regard to China， promoting high-quality development of the Belt and Road and building a new type of international relations and a community with a shared future for mankind have become pioneering strategic objectives of major country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in the new era. China will adhere to its diplomatic concept featuring friendship， sincerity， mutual benefit and inclusiveness， continue its policy of fostering a harmonious， secure and prosperous neighborhood， and strive to build a community with a shared future for China and Central Asia.This will provide strong policy support for promoting Chinas relations with Central Asia. China is entering a new stage of development since it actively began implementing the new development concept and building a new development pattern on its march towards its second centenary goal. It will usher in a period of high-quality and large-scale development， which provides a wide range of opportunities for cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. China tops more economic categories than any other country in the world. It has a strong base， rich experience and a huge market for developing a non-resource-based economy， which is highly valued by Central Asian countries. In particular， China leads the world in e-commerce and digital economy， and its investment capacity， infrastructure construction capacity and tourism resources are also unparalleled. These features have further consolidated Chinas dominant and irreplaceable position in Central Asian countries external relations. In addition， China has a population of 1.4 billion， and its middle-income group of more than 400 million people is still expanding steadily. Domestic demand has become the main driving force behind Chinas economic growth. The huge capacity of the Chinese market has become an endurable attraction to Central Asian countries.

Unprecedented Challenges for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia

Since Chinas rapid rise to the position of the worlds second largest economy， especially since China has put forward the Belt and Road Initiative， Chinas influence in Central Asia regional structures has become a major factor， which is causing complex and subtle changes in the relationship among major countries as well as between China and Central Asian countries， thus posing unprecedented challenges for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia.

First， China is facing competitive pressure from external forces.

Traditionally， the United States has sought to contain Russias influence in Central Asia， but then has tried to curb China and Russia at the same time， although more recently the focus has been mainly on China. It is now implementing a comprehensive containment policy towards China in Central Asia by sabotaging the Belt and Road construction， hyping issues related to Xinjiang， and assembling an anti-China coalition， which has sharply increased Chinas strategic pressure. At the same time， the European Union has launched the EU-Asia Connectivity Strategy and the Global Gateway Strategy， highlighting its intention to cooperate with the US in containing China. Turkey and India are also stepping up their layout in Central Asia， which will also lead to stronger competition with China.

Second， China is feeling the impact of a new round of nationalism in Central Asia.

In recent years， under the instigation of the US and other Western countries， local anti-China nationalist forces in Central Asia have frequently hyped issues related to Xinjiang and caused a number of vicious incidents. They groundlessly accused China of plundering local resources， exporting excess capacity， and destroying the local ecological environment， which really put Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia to the test. The resurgence of pannationalism marked by Pan-Turkism also has a potential impact on Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia.

Third， China needs to make up for its own weaknesses.

Although China has occupied a pivotal position in the strategic pattern of Central Asia， it also has various weaknesses. If not addressed in time， they are bound to constitute obstacles to Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia. At present， Chinas main weaknesses in Central Asia are as follows： it has limited understanding and influence on political and security-related affairs in Central Asia； its soft power is weak， far inferior not only to Russia and the US， but also to the EU and Turkey； its cooperation with Central Asian countries does not have a high level of institutionalization.

Basic Approaches

In the coming decade， Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia will enter a crucial period. China should take over and carry forward its successful cooperation experience， face up to challenges and problems， take more decisive actions， and strive to promote better and faster development of relations with Central Asian countries.

Establishing and strengthening the sense of community with a shared future

The development of Central Asia over the past 30 years has clearly shown that only through joint efforts could all parties overcome common threats and challenges. The impressive number of achievements from Chinas cooperation with Central Asian countries over the past 30 years clearly proves that building a community with a shared future for mankind is by no means an empty concept but has practical contents. China and Central Asian countries are geographically， historically， and culturally connected. All of them are developing countries with the same or similar positions on many international and regional issues， facing the task of modernizing and revitalizing their economies. In recent years， China has been committed to building a community with a shared future with Central Asian countries， which has received much positive response and support from the latter. In the upcoming period， China and Central Asian countries should further strengthen the sense of a community with a shared future， step up the construction of a community of shared interests， responsibilities and future， and strive to build bilateral cooperation into a model of partnership that is always beneficial to each other and shares weal and woe. It is necessary for China to take the following measures： strengthening strategic communication and policy coordination with Central Asian countries， and intensifying the cooperation between the Belt and Road Initiative and Central Asian countries development strategies； increasing people-to-people exchanges， and effectively enhancing understanding with the people of Central Asian countries； conducting exchanges and cooperation with the media of Central Asian countries， encouraging them to provide more positive energy for bilateral cooperation.

Enhancing the institutionalization level of bilateral cooperation

Although cooperation between China and Central Asian countries has made considerable progress in the past 30 years， the lack of effective legally binding institutional arrangements has made its efficiency still unsatisfactory and unable to match the level of bilateral relations. Therefore， China and Central Asian countries should actively explore additional cooperation arrangements that are in line with the trend of the times and suitable for the regional situation， so as to provide solid legal guarantees for effective cooperation between the two sides. China should take the prevention and control of the COVID-19 epidemic as an opportunity， start with the establishment of public health cooperation arrangements， and gradually make up for the weaknesses in its cooperation system with Central Asian countries. China should work with Central Asian countries to improve cooperation mechanisms in consular protection， customs quarantine， aviation control， travel safety， disaster relief and other aspects， so that relevant measures could be implemented effectively. Finally， China and Central Asian countries should accelerate the binding institutionalization of their cooperation in various fields， to put bilateral cooperation on a rapid， orderly and beneficial development path.

Adopting parallel policies of differentiation and integration

The national， political and social conditions of Central Asian countries are diversified， which determines that China and Central Asian countries should implement differentiated policies in their cooperation. They should carry out targeted and detailed cooperation projects in different regions， countries and fields， strive to achieve the unity of universality and individuality， and conduct customized and efficient cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. Considering that Central Asia is a location where spheres of interest of various major countries intersect with each other， and that each major country sees its own advantages and disadvantages in this region， it is necessary to adopt differentiated measures based on the basic principles of mutual respect， fairness and justice， and win-win cooperation， so as to effectively handle the relations among major countries in Central Asia and minimize the adverse impact of major country conflicts on China-Central Asia cooperation.

Over time and as the situation changes， the desire of Central Asian nations for more autonomy and regional cooperation will grow. It is the general trend to strengthen the integration and regionalism of Central Asia. Major countries outside the region have one by one launched regional revitalization plans， which have also provided impetus for regional cooperation in Central Asia. Therefore， in developing relations with Central Asian countries， China should adopt a dual track policy of differentiation and integration， pay equal attention to bilateral and multilateral cooperation， develop political， security， economic and cultural cooperation in an allround way， and coordinate cooperation with Central Asian countries under the framework of SCO， the Silk Road Economic Belt， and the “C+C5”cooperation mechanism.

Conclusion

Chinas diplomacy is focused on major powers， developing countries， its own neighborhood， and on multilateral institutions. Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia is closely related to all four levels. Central Asian countries are close neighbors to western China， and all of them are developing countries. Besides， major countries interact intensely in the region， and various multilateral mechanisms are competing and coexisting. This endows Central Asian countries with various benefits for Chinas diplomacy and provides an important stage for China to practice new diplomatic concepts， establish new cooperation models， and build new governance paradigms. Over the past three decades， Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia has gone through twists and turns but has ultimately achieved great successes. It has explored a new path of good neighborliness， friendship and win-win cooperation for the world. It has proved that building a new type of international relations based on mutual respect， fairness， justice and win-win cooperation is not only necessary but also completely feasible. It has also provided valuable experience for China to continuously promote major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics and to achieve the strategic goal of building a community with a shared future for mankind.

At present， the world is experiencing tectonic shifts not seen in a century， leading also to dramatic changes in regional scenarios. This has set new and higher requirements for Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia and is raising the following tough questions for Chinas diplomacy towards Central Asia： how to ensure the stability of western China and the neighboring areas when the US is vigorously promoting its Indo-Pacific strategy with the main goal of containing China， stepping up its efforts to form an anti-China alliance and exert extreme pressure on China； how to promote the construction of the Belt and Road Initiative and achieve common development against the backdrop of surging anti-globalization and intensifying unilateral sanctions； how to build an even closer ChinaCentral Asia community with a shared future considering that the US and the EU are increasing their containment efforts against China in Central Asia， and that Russia continues to promote its Greater Eurasian Partnership strategy. History and reality show that Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia not only conforms to the trend of the times and to specific regional realities， but also meets the expectations of the people of China and Central Asian countries. In the future， Chinas diplomacy in Central Asia will have broader space for development， and it will certainly play a more active role in the process of achieving the goal of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in the new era， building a new type of international relations and a community with a shared future for mankind.

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