Far-field super-resolution ghost imaging with a deep neural network constraint

Fei Wang,Chenglong Wang,Mingliang Chen,Wenlin Gong,Yu Zhang,Shensheng Han,3,4 and Guohai Situ,3,4?

1Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Shanghai 201800,China

2Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,China

Abstract Ghost imaging (GI) facilitates image acquisition under low-light conditions by single-pixel measurements and thus has great potential in applications in various fields ranging from biomedical imaging to remote sensing.However,GI usually requires a large amount of single-pixel samplings in order to reconstruct a high-resolution image,imposing a practical limit for its applications.Here we propose a far-field super-resolution GI technique that incorporates the physical model for GI image formation into a deep neural network.The resulting hybrid neural network does not need to pre-train on any dataset,and allows the reconstruction of a far-field image with the resolution beyond the diffraction limit.Furthermore,the physical model imposes a constraint to the network output,making it effectively interpretable.We experimentally demonstrate the proposed GI technique by imaging a flying drone,and show that it outperforms some other widespread GI techniques in terms of both spatial resolution and sampling ratio.We believe that this study provides a new framework for GI,and paves a way for its practical applications.

Introduction

Conventional imaging methods exploit the light reflected or scattered by an object to form its image on a twodimensional sensor that has millions of pixels.However,ghost imaging (GI),an advanced imaging modality based on the second-order correlation of quantum or classical light,uses a single-pixel detector instead to record the reflected or scattered light,yielding a one-dimensional(1D) bucket signal1-6.In some cases,an additional position sensitive detector is required to measure the illumination patterns.Although neither detector directly records a resolvable image of the object,one can employ an intuitive linear algorithm to reconstruct its image by spatial correlating the acquired time-varying patterns and the synchronized bucket signal.As it uses a single-pixel detector to collect the photons that interact with the object,GI has significant advantages over conventional imaging modalities in terms of detection sensitivity,dark counts,spectral range,and cost efficiency7,8.In addition,with the aid of some prior information,e.g.,sparsity,it is capable of sensing compressively during data acquisition9,10.Such enhancements can provide significance in low-light imaging where the photon counts are very low due to scattering or absorption losses as in medical imaging or remote sensing;and in non-visible waveband imaging where the availability of silicon-based sensor becomes expensive or impractical as in infrared or deep ultraviolet regime.

However,in GI,a large amount of single-pixel measurements is necessary because one sampling only contains a little information about the object.Specifically,to obtain anN-pixel image one needs at leastM=Nmeasurements to meetβ=M/N=100%,whereβrepresents the sampling ratio (the Nyquist sampling criterion).In many applications such as remote sensing10,a rotating ground glass (RGG) is frequently used to generate speckle illumination patterns compared with other programmable modulation strategies,e.g.,digital micromirror device11owing to its high power endurance and cost efficiency.In this case one needsM?Nmeasurements to improve the signal-to-noise ratio(SNR) of the reconstructed image due to the overlap of different patterns9.This inevitably leads to a paradox between the number of pixels occupied by the object and the data acquisition time.In addition,the spatial resolution of GI is physically limited by the grain size of the speckle pattern on the object plane12.This is unfavorable for far-field imaging as the speckle grain becomes too large to distinguish the detailed structure of the object13,14.Thus,an intuitive and longstanding goal in the study of GI is to decreaseβwhile retaining good resolution,so as to reduce the burden of data acquisition and produce better imaging visual effects.However,the consequential incomplete sampling strategy usually lead to ill-posedness in GI reconstruction.Thus,suitable prior assumptions are needed to compensate the missing information.

One popular approach is based on compressive sensing(CS).CS uses sparsity as a general prior assumption and has become a popular signal reconstruction framework15-17.It has been widely used in various imaging systems such as single-pixel cameras11and compressive holography18.Specifically,given the measurementsy,the CS technique usually reconstructs the objectxby solving the following iteration problem:

where Φ is the random measurement matrix and Ψ is the transformation matrix that transformsxinto a sparse domain such as discrete cosine transform (DCT) or wavelet.Ψxrepresents the corresponding transform coefficients regularized by thel1norm with the regularization parameterξ.Owing to the sparsity of the image of the object and the randomness of the illumination patterns,CS is also suitable for GI reconstruction.Such GI using sparsity constraint,or GISC for short,enables the reconstruction of high-quality and high-resolution image whenβ＜100%7,9,13,19,20[Fig.1f].In the field of GI,CS has been used for resolution enhancement21-23,remote sensing10,3D imaging24,and among many others7,8,19.However,it is still a challenging problem for GISC to operate well in the case whenβis less than the Cramer-Rao bound16,17,22.

An alternative but increasingly important approach is deep learning that is based on data prior assumptions25-27.Specifically,it has shown that it allows robust GI reconstruction of high-quality images even whenβ＜10% with high computational efficiency28-31.Such GI based on deep learning (GIDL) technique uses a deep neural network(DNN)to learn from a large number of input-output data pairs so as to establish a mapping relationship among them.The experimental acquisition of such a huge training set is time consuming and laborious because one needs at least thousands of measurements for one data pair even for a 64×64 image in a proof-of-principle experiment.Though the neural network can be trained on simulation data30,the trained model only works well for the reconstruction of objects that resemble those in the training set.This challenge of generalization is one of the big issues that need to be addressed.

Recently,Ulyanov et al.32proposed the deep image prior(DIP)framework that uses an untrained neural network as a constraint for image processing tasks such as denoising,inpainting,and super resolution.They demonstrated that a properly designed generator network architecture itself has an implicit bias towards natural images and thus can be used for solving ill-posed inverse problems33.The most significant advantage of DIP is that a generator network can be used without training beforehand,and thus eliminating the need for tens of thousands of labeled data.A similar concept has also been used for computational imaging,such as phase retrieval34,35,CS36,37,and diffraction tomography38.

Inspired by the idea of DIP,here we propose a new GI technique that incorporates the physical model of GI image formation into a DNN.We hypothesize that the image prior information introduced by an untrained DNN can be applied to achieve better GI reconstruction under much lowerβ.We term the proposed technique as GI using Deep neural network Constraint (GIDC).It utilizes an untrained DNN to generate high-quality and high-resolution results.The only input it requires are a 1D bucket signal sequenceIfrom which one needs to reconstruct an image,together with the associated stack of illumination patternsH,which is easily accessible in a typical GI system [Fig.1a].The proposed GIDC technique is described as follows.First,we correlate theH[Fig.1b,top]andI[Fig.1b,bottom]by differential ghost imaging(DGI)39,40and obtain a rough reconstruction of the image.Second,we feed the resulting DGI reconstruction into a randomly initialized neural network(untrained).Third,we take the output of the neural network as an estimation of a high-quality GI image and use it to calculate a bucket signalIby using a GI image formation model.Finally,we update the weights of the neural network to minimize the error between the measured and estimated bucket signal [Fig.1c].Along with the error reduction [Fig.1d],the output of the neural network also converges to a good-quality image[Fig.1e].Compared with conventional DGI and GISC[Fig.1f],the proposed strategy dramatically increases the quality and resolution of GI under much lower sampling ratioβ.Compared with those state-of-the-art deep-learning-based methods,GIDC does not need to train on any labeled data and thus is more flexible and does not bias towards a specific distribution.Specifically,our contributions include:

Fig.1 Overview of GIDC.

● We demonstrate that GIDC can reconstruct a dramatically high SNR GI image at a very low sampling ratioβ.

● We demonstrate that GIDC can enhance the resolution of the reconstructed image even when the speckle grain size is larger,suggesting its potential to break the diffraction limit.

● We perform a comparative study on the base of a number of challenging real-world scenarios including a flying drone and synthesized dataset,and demonstrate that GIDC outperforms other widespread GI methods,including DGI,GISC,and GIDL.

Results

Sampling ratio

We built a typical Pseudothermal GI system[Fig.2a]for data acquisition.Here we show the reconstruction results of different objects using different methods at different sampling ratios.The first group of results is plotted in Fig.2b.One can clearly see that all the binary objects have been successfully reconstructed by GIDC,with the number of measurements as low as 256 (β=6.25%).We also take DGI39,40and GISC13for comparison.For all the cases (different objects andβsettings),GIDC outperform DGI and GISC both in terms of visual appearance and quantitative evaluation index (SSIM).We observe the same results in the cases that the object is in grayscale[Fig.2c].One can clearly see that the clean and highcontrast images reconstructed by GIDC,whereas the ones recovered by DGI and GISC are dirty or even corrupted by strong noise in particular whenβis low (see first two columns in Fig.2c).

We also conducted an outdoor experiment to demonstrate the effectiveness of GIDC.The data were acquired by using a homemade GI LiDAR system41.The imaging target [Fig.2d,top] is a flying drone (DJI,Phantom 4)hovering in the air,50 m away from the GI LiDAR system.The main results are plotted in Fig.2d.One can clearly see that the GIDC can successfully reconstruct the shape of the drone with very high contrast.The size of the reconstructed image is 128×128,meaning that the sampling ratioβ=9000/16,384 ≈55%.The reconstructed image by DGI and GISC plotted as well for comparison.One can see that the image reconstructed by DGI or GISC is corrupted by noise,and the contrast is low.

Resolution

We also experimentally demonstrated the spatial resolution that GIDC can offer.It is known that as an imaging method based on the second-order (intensity) correlation of light,the spatial resolution of GI is theoretically limited by the width of the mutual correlation function of the illumination speckle patterns,measured at the object plane42.According to this,we first calculated the normalized correlation function [Fig.3a] of the recorded speckle patterns43,namely

Then,we measured the full-width at half-max(FWHM)to estimate the value of the speckle grain size on the object plane.We found that it occupies 7 binned pixels in both the horizontal and vertical directions [Fig.3b,c],suggesting that the diffraction limit of our experimental GI system is 683.59 μm.More details about the system configuration toward the GI system can be found in the section “Methods and Materials.”

Fig.3 Experiment results for USAF resolution target.

A USAF resolution target was used to test the resolution of different GI reconstruction methods.The main results are plotted in Fig.3d-i.As expected,the image reconstructed by DGI suggests that the elements in Group 0 Element 5 are not resolvable because the linewidth(629.96 μm) is smaller than the diffraction limit(683.59 μm).It becomes a little bit better by using GISC,where some elements with their linewidth smaller than the diffraction limit (Group 1 Element 1,500 μm) can be distinguished.Evidentially,the proposed GIDC has the best performance in terms of both linewidth and sharpness exhibited in the reconstructed image.As shown in Fig.3g-i,the line pairs in Group 1 Element 4 with the linewidth of 353.55 μm can be successfully reconstructed by GIDC,but neither DGI nor GISC achieves the same performance.This suggests that the proposed GIDC has the capability of enhancing the resolution by a factor of about 2 (683.59/353.55=1.93) with respect to the diffraction limit.More evidence can be found in Fig.3j.In addition to the advantages of resolution,the image reconstructed by GIDC has much higher contrast as evidenced by the clean background.

Discussion

In this section,we make some more in-depth discussions on the performance of GIDC in comparison to DGI and GISC.GIDL trained on two different datasets were also considered.For the sake of quantitative evaluation,we examine on simulation data in this section.

Accuracy

Two differentβsettings were studied here,i.e.,β=12.5% andβ=25%,corresponding to the number of measurementsM=512 and 1024,respectively.The results are shown in Fig.4.Apparently,the images reconstructed by GIDC have the best fidelity for all the sample objects we studied here.In the case ofβ?12.5%,we observed that the reconstructed grayscale images are not as good as the reconstructed binary images even using GIDC.This is probably because a grayscale image contains too much unknown information to be determined,and it seems to be unfeasible to achieve a good reconstruction with a small sampling ratio.However,the reconstructed images are much better whenβ?25%,which is in consistence with the optical experimental results shown in Fig.2.In order to quantitatively evaluate the results obtained by different methods,we calculated the SSIM value for each reconstructed image with respect to the corresponding ground truth.The SSIMs are listed in Table 1.It is clearly seen that GIDC has the highest metrics values in most of the cases,suggesting that the reconstruction accuracy of GIDC outperforms the others.The performance of GIDL,however,depends strongly on the training set and the task in hand.For instance,relatively good performance can be achieved when using GIDL trained on MNIST to reconstruct binary characters.In contrast,the reconstructed images are severely corrupted in the cases of grayscale due to the limited generalization.Although this can be slightly relieved by training it on an alternative dataset such as Cifar1044,it affects the accuracy of the reconstructed binary characters images as suggested by results shown in the fifth and tenth columns in Fig.4.By contrast,GIDC is a general method that can be used to reconstruct different types of objects usually with a high accuracy and a lowβ.

Fig.4 Comparison of different GI reconstruction methods under different

Table 1 The metrics of different GI reconstruction methods on SSIM when β?512/4096?12.5% and β?1024/4096?25%

Resolution

Here we will analyze the experiment result on resolution enhancement shown in the section “Resolution.” First we compare the resolution of the images reconstructed by GIDC and other widespread GI algorithms from the same set of simulation data.We generated five groups of illumination speckles [Fig.5a1-a5] with the grain sizexs=λz/Dvarying from 3 to 11 μm[Fig.5b1-b5]to encode the object which was a triple-slit pattern shown in Fig.5f.We setβ=410/4096 ≈10%.We found that the DGI cannot distinguish the slits well whenxs＞5 μm.As expected,GISC can enhance the resolution.As evidenced in Fig.5d3,the slit pattern can still be recognized whenxsis as large as 7 μm.However,GISC fails whenxs≥9 μm.By contrast,the proposed GIDC reconstructs an almost perfect image under the same condition.Even whenxsis as large as 11 μm,the GIDC still provide a very good result[Fig.5e5].The cross-section of the reconstructed image whenxs=7 μm andxs=11 μm was plotted in Fig.5g,h,respectively.From the results,one can clearly conclude that the proposed GIDC can provide dramatically resolution enhancement compared with DGI and GISC,in high consistence with the experimental results presented in Fig.3.

Fig.5 Comparison of GI resolution using different reconstruction algorithms.

Note that in the studies of phase imaging using untrained neural networks34,35,we did not observe such a phenomenon of resolution enhancement.So it must have something to do with the imaging modality of GI.There are three unique features that GI possesses in comparison to phase imaging.First,the object is illuminated by a random beam.Second,the light scattered from the object is recorded with a bucket detector.Third,GI relies on the second-order correlation of the light field45,whereas phase imaging relies on the first order.Each implementation of the random illumination can shift some of the high-spatial frequency components to the lower band46.This means that the associated information beyond the diffraction limit can be efficiently encoded and transmitted to the detector.A similar concept has been introduced in microscopy to achieve super resolution as well47.In the case of GI,however,the decoding of those high-frequency components is not so trivial due to the fact that they are highly compressed in the 1D bucket signal.Indeed,as shown in Fig.5,none of those widespread GI algorithms can do this job.In contrast,GIDC endeavors to find a feasible solution that can reproduce the acquired bucket signal.Such a feasible solution has to contain those high-frequency components encoded in the bucket signal in order to decrease the loss function.

Robustness

The robustness is evaluated by examining the effect of noise in the detection to the reconstructed image.There are different kinds of noise in the detection process48,but the noise effect can be modeled as an additive Gaussian distribution with the standard deviationδas a whole20,49.Thus,one can define the detection SNR(dSNR) as follows50:

to describe the degradation of the detected signal.Two cases were examined in our studies.In the first case,we fixed the dSNR to 26 dB,and see how the reconstructed image would be under different sampling ratio conditions.In the second one,we fixed the sampling ratio to be 60% for different dSNRs.In this analysis,eight standard grayscale images(Supplementary Fig.S1)were used as the target.We again used SSIM to measure the quality of the reconstructed image from the contaminated bucket signal.The results are plotted in Supplementary Fig.S2;one can clearly see that GIDC has the best performance among all the three,in particular when the noise level is high.For DGI,the SSIM value of the reconstructed image is linearly increased with the sampling ratioβas the SNR of the reconstructed image is linearly proportional to the number of measurements39,40.In addition,we observed that the averaged SSIM in this case is around 0.46 whenβ=60%.This noise-independence effect is highly consistence with the theoretical prediction39,40.On the contrary,GISC is more sensitive to the detection noise15as the SSIM drops from 0.862 to 0.544 when the dSNR is decreased from 30 to 22 dB.Some visualization results can be found in Supplementary Fig.S3.

Priors

The effect of priors is also examined here.Two types of priors were used in GIDC,the physical prior,i.e.,DGI,and the total variation (TV) regularization.Here we analyze the effect of DGI and TV independently and in combination.When either DGI or TV is not used,the associated SSIM values are plotted as the bars in green and turquoise,respectively,in Supplementary Fig.S2.One can see that,in all the cases,the SSIM values are slightly less than the one associated with GIDC (orange).This suggests that the use of priors does have contribution to the quality of the reconstructed image.This can be more clearly seen by the yellow bars,which are associated with the cases that neither of them was used.But even in this case the reconstructed image is still far better than the one obtained from DGI alone,suggesting that the GIDC framework has good robustness performance.Some visualization results can be found in Supplementary Fig.S3.

Computational efficiency

It is necessary to compare the computational time for different approaches.Different image sizes were considered whenβis set to 6.25%.Compared with DGI and GISC,GIDC provides the best results in terms of both visualizations [Supplementary Fig.S4a] and quantitative metrics [Supplementary Fig.S4c] under all pixelresolution settings.However,as shown in Supplementary Fig.S4b,GIDC needs the longest time to optimize.For a 128×128 image,it needs about 5 min to restore a feasible result,while DGI and GISC only needs 0.221 and 12.29 s,respectively.Thus,the previous GISC and our GIDC are both not suitable for real-time applications,at least on the current computing platform.Despite this,for applications that allow post-processing offline but require fast data acquisition,GIDC yields the highest image fidelity at the lowest sampling ratio.The reconstructed image is associated with a SSIM value of 0.9 even whenβis down to 6.25%.We also noticed that the computational time dramatically increases along with the increase of the image size.There are mainly two reasons for this.First,the width of the network will increase accordingly to accept the image as its input,process it and produce an output.Thus,it takes more time to forward infer during each iteration.Second,the size of the measurement matrixHthat is used to generate the estimated bucket signal will increase.Thus,it takes more time to calculate the gradient and update the network parameters.

There are several strategies that one can take into account to improve the GIDC computational efficiency.These include better design of the neural network architecture,the implementation of depth-wise convolution51,the employment of better initialization52and learning53strategy.In addition,from a practical application point of view,the implementation of GIDC on a faster computing platform together with hardware speedup by using multiple GPUs will also help to significantly increase the computational efficiency.

Methods and materials

Formation of the reconstruction algorithm

For an objectO(xt,yt),the measurements of the pseudothermal GI system are the 1D bucket signal

measured by a single-pixel detector in the test arm,and the corresponding stack of random illumination patternsHm(xt,yt),wherem=1,2,…,M,measured by a highresolution camera in the reference arm.The conventional GI algorithm reconstructs the object image by computing the intensity correlation betweenHmandIm

where 〈.〉 denotes the ensemble average approximately defined asand

For DGI39,40,one uses the illumination patterns so as to improve the SNRto normalize

For the proposed GIDC,the reconstruction of the object image is formulated as the following objective function

where Rθis the DNN defined by a set of weights and biases parameters Θ.The goal of GIDC is to find a good configurationθ*∈Θ for the neural network that forces its outputOGIDC=Rθ*(ODGI)to produce a 1D sequenceaccording to the GI image formation physics(Eq.4)that resembles the experimentally acquired bucket signalI.As it is an ill-posed problem,especially whenM?N,there are in principle an infinite number of configurations that satisfies the objective function.Therefore,it is necessary to add prior information about the object so as to select a feasible solution from all the configurations.For example,in GISC,the prior information is about an assumption that the object is sparse in a certain domain.Different from GISC,the proposed GIDC is based on an untrained DNN prior.Although the theory for this has yet to be perfected,existing works has empirically suggested that a properly designed DNN with randomly initialized weights has an inherent bias toward natural images32,34-38.We thus hypothesize that the DNN prior can be used to solve the ill-posed problem described by Eq.(7).We also argue that adding a conventional regularization terms such as the TV38in the GIDC framework would help improving the reconstruction results.So the final objective function (loss function) of GIDC is reformulated as follows:

where T stands for TV andξis its strength.

For comparison,it is worthy of pointing out that GIDL uses a DNN as well.But it attempts to learn the mapping function Rθf(wàn)rom a large number of labeled data pairs in the training setST={(OkDGI,Ok)|k=1,2,…,K},by solving

GIDL learns to map the low-quality reconstructed images to a high-quality ones from the statistics of the training setST.Once trained,the neural net can be used directly to reconstruct objects that are similar with those inST.

By contrast,GIDC learns the mapping function through updating the weights and biasesθin the neural network to minimize the model-based fidelity term,which can be seen as an interplay between the GI physical modelHand the DNN Rθ.In this way,one can obtain a feasible solutionOGIDC=Rθ*(ODGI) without using any training data.That is to say,GIDC is an untrained method and does not bias toward any particular dataset.We note that the input of the neural network used in GIDC can be a coarse image recovered by any conventional GI algorithms20,34,39,40,46or even random noise32,35,38,here we use the result of DGI for convenience.

Network architecture and hyper parameters

The network architecture we employed in this work was derived from the U-net54.More details of the network structure are provided in Supplementary Fig.S5.We adopted the Adam optimizer with a learning rate of α=0.05,β1=0.5,β2=0.9,and ?=10-9to update the weights in the neural network.We also used an exponential decay with a decay rate of 0.9 and decay steps of 100.The momentum and epsilon parameters in the batch normalization were 0.99 and 0.001,respectively.The leak parameter of Leaky ReLU was 0.2.The regularization parameter of the TV was 10-10.The code was run on a computer with an Intel Xeon CPU E5-2696 V3,64 GB RAM,and an NVIDIA Quadro P6000 GPU.The main progress is illustrated in Algorithm 1.For the sake of comparison,we use the same network model for GIDC and GIDL.We also released our code at https://github.com/FeiWang0824/GIDC.

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Experimental details

Figure 2a presents the optical system we built for the experimental demonstration.Lt,LrandLcare lenses with focal length of 136.8,30,and 75 mm,respectively.Detector 1 works as a single-pixel detector,whereas Detector 2 is a high-resolution camera.The light source is a solid-state pulsed laser with aλ=532 nm centerwavelength,and a 10 ns pulse width at a repetition rate of 1 kHz.The pulsed beam emitted from the laser irradiated a RGG to produce pseudothermal light.The beam diameter on the RGG wasDand can be adjusted by an optical stop (stop1).The distance between the RGG and the other optical stop (stop2) is aboutz=180 mm.The shape of stop2 is a square with a side length equal to 5 mm.Owing to the RGG,a speckle field is fully developed at the plane of stop2.Then the speckle field is divided by a beam splitter into a test and a reference arms.In the test arm,we use an imaging lensLtto project the speckle field at the stop2 plane to the surface of the object.The side length of the objects is aboutL=25 mm (the magnification ofLtis 5).The transmitted light is collected by a lensLc(Nikon AF-S NiKKOR 85 mm f/1.4 G) and finally recorded by a single-pixel detector (in our experiment,we actually used an AVT F504B camera to record the transmitted intensity,and generated the bucket signal by summing all the pixel values).In the reference arm,we use an image detector 2 (AVT F504B,with the pixel sizepsof 3.45 μm) mounted with an imaging lensLrto take a high-resolution image of the speckle pattern on the stop2 plane.

Three different types of objects were used to test the GIDC performance,i.e.,transparent slices of various characters with binary value and of natural scenes in grayscale (a film after exposure a standard test image“house”),and a physical USAF resolution chart.The spatial resolution of our GI system can be adjusted by changingDaszis fixed throughxs=λz/D.In addition,different pixel resolutionNcan be obtained by setting different resize factorq=so that the binned pixel size isq2ps.We set the resize factor of 10.64,7.52,and 5.32 for binary characters,grayscale object,and USAF resolution chart to meet the pixel resolution of 64,128,and 256,respectively.Then the binned pixel size is 390.63,195.31,and 97.66 μm,respectively.For the experiment of USAF resolution chart,we setD=0.70 mm to meet the spatial resolution of 683.59 μm(683.59/97.66=7 binned pixels).

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Z.Tong (Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics)for discussion and helpful comments.This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (61991452,62061136005),the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (QYZDB-SSW-JSC002),and the Sino-German Center (GZ1391).

Author details

1Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Shanghai 201800,China.2Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,China.3Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Hangzhou 310024,China.4CAS Center for Excellence in Ultra-intense Laser Science,Shanghai 201800,China

Author contributions

G.S.and F.W.conceived the idea.F.W.discovered the procedures,designed,performed,and analyzed most of the data.C.W.performed most of the experiments together with F.W.and C.W.,M.C.,and W.G.conducted the outdoor experiment.F.W.and G.S.wrote the manuscript.All authors discussed and commented on the manuscript.G.S.supervised the project.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Supplementary informationThe online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-021-00680-w.