梁昊譯
【譯者言】 ? 我們教機器輔助翻譯課的體驗是,翻譯軟件對當(dāng)代英文的文法解讀僅偶爾出錯,所產(chǎn)出的中文譯本,文法上也基本通順。機器譯文的一個常見問題是,英譯中時所提供的中文對應(yīng)詞經(jīng)常出錯或不太恰當(dāng)。面對一些常用英文詞的多個中文對應(yīng)詞,機器的解決辦法似乎是選擇最常見的中文對應(yīng)詞,例如將ideal譯成“理想”,people譯成“人”,share譯成“分享”。由于這種簡單化應(yīng)對方式常造成謬誤或不當(dāng)之處,因此人工翻譯在今后相當(dāng)長的時間里仍大有用武之地。在深度學(xué)習(xí)能讓機器達到專業(yè)翻譯的水平之前,翻譯教師不用擔(dān)心自己的飯碗會被機器搶走。
Education in Athens
Introduction
The Athenian ideal3 was paideia4: harmonious and natural development (limited to men only). The Greeks may have been among the first people5 to conceive of broadly available education as important to communal well-being. The Athenians shared6 the Chinese traditional approach to learning through memorization7 of designated classic texts. But in addition they gave special emphasis to two quite different principles: that effectiveness8 in oral argument was more important than writing, and that all (male) citizens9 needed to acquire at least minimal verbal and numerical (mathematical) skills10 so that Athens could maintain its dominance in commerce and its influence over less powerful city-states. This training11 sought to guarantee the basis of effective citizenship, including gymnastics12 and military preparedness13.
1. Literacy and numeracy
These basic skills were taught in an analytic14 fashion by focusing first on the basic components and then going on to progressively more complex combinations. Here is an account from a boy about how he learned to read15 in the 1st century BCE:
When we learn to read, we first learn the names of letters, then their shapes and values, then the syllables and their properties, after this the words and their inflections (required by Greek grammar)... . Then we begin to read and write, slowly at first, and syllable by syllable. When, in due process16 of time, the forms of words are fixed in our mind, we read easily and get through any book handed to us without stumbling17, with incredible ease and speed.
Commentary: Children today still begin learning Indo-European languages by focusing on the letters of the alphabet.
2. Classic texts and memorization
According to Plato, the next steps involved extensive reading and memorization. As soon as a boy had learned his letters, and was beginning to understand what is written, they put into his hands the works of great poets like Homer or Hesiod18. “In these are contained many admonitions, and many tales, and praises of ancient famous men, which he is required to learn by heart19, in order that he may desire to be like them.” Epics like those of Homer focused attention on heroic individuals like Achilles who were held up20 as examples for admiration and imitation.
3. Music
Plato describes learning music as the next step:
The teachers of the lyre21 (small Greek harp) take care that22 their young disciple is temperate and gets into no mischief and when they have taught him the use of the lyre, they introduce him to the poems of other excellent poets, who are the lyrical poets23; and these they set to music, and make their harmonies and rhythms quite familiar to the childrens souls24, in order that they may learn to be more gentle and harmonious and rhythmical and so fitted for speech and action; for the life of man25 in every part has need of harmony and rhythm.
Commentary: Harmony, then, implies a broad concept of balanced development. Music brought the pupil into harmony with himself by bringing him into harmony with the larger outside world. The Pythagorean School of thinkers, which greatly influenced Plato, analyzed the nodes of vibration in a single string as the mathematical basis of harmonic intervals26 (2:1, the octave; 3:2, the fifth; 4:3, the fourth, etc.). They also extended these same ratios to explain the total harmony of the universe.
4. Physical development
During adolescence, boys were trained in gymnastics and competitive sports. Wrestling was particularly important, joined by running, discus and javelin throwing, long jumping, and some other track-and-field competitions that still survive in the modern Olympics. These competitions were performed naked or at most with a loin cloth. Older men often gathered to watch and to encourage their favorites27. The goal of physical training, according to Plato, was in order that their bodies might better minister to the virtuous mind and that these young men might not, through bodily weakness, play the coward in war or on any other occasion.
All the early training aimed at balanced development of the body and the mind, culminating in areté (being the most successful one can be as a human)28.
5. Military training
Though the program details changed from time to time, by age 18 able-bodied young men entered two years of military training. The key to Greek military success was a highly disciplined battle formation called a phalanx, a square of closely packed hoplites (citizen-soldiers) formed by 10 to 20 soldiers on each side, armed with long spears and moving, even running, as a unit.
As long as the soldiers discipline held, a phalanx was likely to defeat any other battle formation known in its day. Often Greek city-states fought each other, in which case the phalanx with superior discipline and coordination won, Sparta providing the model. This phase of Greek education was, then, not incidental29 but crucial to the well-being of the city-state. By the end of his military training, a young man assumed full citizenship, remaining on call for military duty whenever the Assembly should so decide.
6. “Higher education”
After age 20, the sons of wealthy families were likely to have the means30 to engage private tutors or to join one of the upper-level schools31 that emerged in the 4th century BCE. The first Greek proto-universities were founded in Athens by and for philosophers. Plato around 387 BCE opened the Academy32, which was named for the olive grove outside Athens where these students originally met. This institution survived for 900 years. The second was the Lyceum, begun in 335 BCE by Aristotle, who liked to walk about as he lectured. His students were then called Peripatetics (Greek: “those who walk about”). A covered colonnade in Athens, a stoa, gave its name to a competing school33 called the Stoics, whose philosophy came into greater prominence under the Romans.
Thus from the outset, there has been a certain ambiguity in the West about the idea of a school. The word could refer to the place where instruction took place or to the school of thought that was dominant there.
Note that, starting with the Greeks, Western thinkers, unlike their Chinese counterparts, often sought to establish their independence of the masters who had initiated them into intellectual life34.
The masters founded schools which then felt free to subscribe35 to competing intellectual approaches. The resulting agonistic diversity36 is one reason that it is hard to generalize about their views.
雅典的教育
導(dǎo)讀
古代雅典人的教育理念是“男童教養(yǎng)”(παιδε?α,拉丁文轉(zhuǎn)寫是paideia或paedeia),即為城邦培養(yǎng)出理想的邦民。希臘人也許是最早認(rèn)識到普及教育對公共福祉很重要的民族之一。在學(xué)習(xí)方式上,雅典人與中國古人一樣,也是通過背會指定的古典文本來學(xué)習(xí)。此外,他們還特別強調(diào)兩條十分不同的原則:一、在辯論中說服對方比寫作更重要;二、所有(男性)邦民需要具備起碼的讀寫和算術(shù)(數(shù)學(xué))能力,這樣雅典才能保持自己商業(yè)上的優(yōu)勢和對于弱小城邦的影響。這種教養(yǎng)包含赤體訓(xùn)練和戰(zhàn)備訓(xùn)練,目的是確保每一個邦民能有效履行自己的義務(wù)。
1. 讀寫與算數(shù)
這些基礎(chǔ)技能的教學(xué)以分析綜合的方式進行,先聚焦基本成分,然后逐漸進入復(fù)雜組合。下面是公元前1世紀(jì)的一個男孩描述他是怎樣學(xué)會識讀的:
學(xué)識讀時,我們首先學(xué)會字母的名稱,然后是其形式和音值,然后是音節(jié)及其特性,之后是單詞及其形態(tài)變化(這是希臘語文法所要求的)……接著我們開始讀寫。起初進展緩慢,一個一個音節(jié)地學(xué)。到了一定時候,詞的形態(tài)變化已經(jīng)固定在我們腦子里,我們就能輕松讀完交給我們的任何一本書,毫不磕絆,輕而易舉,速度驚人。
點評:今天兒童學(xué)習(xí)印歐語言時,關(guān)注點一開始仍然是字母表中的字母。
2. 古典文本與背書
據(jù)柏拉圖的說法,接下來的環(huán)節(jié)是泛讀和背書。學(xué)童一學(xué)會認(rèn)字母,開始明白文本的內(nèi)容,老師就會把荷馬或赫謝德(《神譜》作者)之類大詩人的作品交給他?!斑@些作品中有許多勸誡、故事和對古代名人的歌頌。老師要求學(xué)童把這些作品背得滾瓜爛熟,因為只有這樣他才會渴望成為作品中的那些人。”荷馬史詩之類的作品著重講述阿喀琉斯等英雄人物的故事,把他們樹立為崇拜和效仿的榜樣。
3. 音樂
柏拉圖把學(xué)習(xí)音樂說成下一個環(huán)節(jié):
萊爾琴(古希臘的一種七弦豎琴)教師陶冶其學(xué)童溫文爾雅,不調(diào)皮搗亂;一旦學(xué)童學(xué)會彈琴,便引導(dǎo)他閱讀其他優(yōu)秀詩人,即所謂萊爾詩人的詩。老師會給這些詩配上音樂,讓學(xué)童的心靈熟悉其和聲與節(jié)奏,這樣他的舉止就可以變得更文雅、更和諧、更有節(jié)奏,適合演講和行動;因為人生方方面面都需要和諧與節(jié)奏。
點評:如此說來,和諧是一個平衡發(fā)展的寬泛概念。音樂讓學(xué)童與大千世界達成和諧,從而達成學(xué)童的自我和諧。畢達哥拉斯學(xué)派的思想家(該學(xué)派曾對柏拉圖有過巨大影響),分析了一根琴弦振動時所發(fā)音的各個節(jié)點,以此作為確定和聲音程的數(shù)學(xué)基礎(chǔ)(2:1,八度;3:2,五度;4:3,四度,等等)。他們還拓展了這些相同比例的應(yīng)用范圍,用以解釋宇宙的總體和諧。
4. 身體發(fā)育
男孩在青春期要接受赤體和競技運動訓(xùn)練。摔跤尤其重要,還有跑步、鐵餅、標(biāo)槍、跳遠(yuǎn)和其他一些田徑比賽項目,這些比賽至今仍是現(xiàn)代奧林匹克運動會的項目。運動員參加這些比賽時赤身裸體,頂多系一塊遮羞布。年長一些的男人常常聚在一起觀看,為自己喜歡的賽手加油。在柏拉圖看來,人們進行身體訓(xùn)練的目的是讓其身體能更好地服侍有德行的心智,讓年輕人不致因為身體孱弱而在戰(zhàn)時或其他任何時刻成為懦夫。
所有早期訓(xùn)練的目的都是身體與心智的均衡發(fā)展,最終達到卓越(areté),即一個人所能達到的最佳狀態(tài)。
5. 軍事訓(xùn)練
盡管訓(xùn)練計劃的細(xì)節(jié)隨著時代的變遷而變化,體格健全的青年男子年滿18歲時都得接受為期兩年的軍訓(xùn)。希臘人打勝仗的關(guān)鍵是其方陣。這是一種紀(jì)律嚴(yán)明、隊形密集的民兵軍陣,陣的每一邊由10至20名手持長矛的士兵組成,形成一個作戰(zhàn)單位,步行或跑步前行。
只要士兵遵守軍紀(jì),這種方陣很可能擊敗當(dāng)時已知的任何一種作戰(zhàn)隊形。希臘城邦常常彼此爭戰(zhàn),這種情況下,紀(jì)律更嚴(yán)明、步調(diào)更一致的方陣取勝,斯巴達就是一個典范。因此,希臘教育的這一階段并非可有可無,而是對城邦的福祉起決定作用。軍訓(xùn)完成之后,一個青年男子就獲得了完全的邦民身份,一旦邦民大會作出決議,他要隨時應(yīng)召服役。
6. “高等教育”
20歲之后,富裕家庭的兒子很可能有錢聘請家庭教師或進入一所高一等的學(xué)校。希臘大學(xué)的原型最早于公元前4世紀(jì)出現(xiàn)在雅典,由哲學(xué)家創(chuàng)辦,目的是培養(yǎng)哲學(xué)家。公元前387年前后,柏拉圖創(chuàng)辦“學(xué)院”,這一名稱來自柏拉圖最初在雅典城外給學(xué)生上課的橄欖園(名為阿卡德米亞:Akademia),該學(xué)院存在了900年。第二所高校是亞里士多德于公元前335年創(chuàng)辦的呂克昂學(xué)園。亞里士多德上課時喜歡四處走動,所以他的學(xué)生后來被稱為漫步學(xué)派弟子。另一個與之爭鋒的學(xué)派稱為斯多葛派,名稱源自雅典一種叫作斯多厄的有頂柱廊,其哲學(xué)在羅馬人統(tǒng)治下顯赫一時。
由此可知,西方關(guān)于school的觀念從最一開始一直就有一定歧義。這個詞既可以指稱教學(xué)場所,也可以指稱在那里占主導(dǎo)地位的思想學(xué)派。
需要注意的是,從古希臘人開始,西方思想家就與同時代的中國思想家不同,他們常致力于建立自己的獨立性,而不是依附于指引他們步入思想領(lǐng)域的老師。
老師創(chuàng)立學(xué)派,之后該學(xué)派的人便可以自由采納與之競爭的思想觀念,由此形成百家爭鳴的局面。我們今天很難對各家觀點一以概之,原因之一就在于此。
1北京外國語大學(xué)英語學(xué)院講師;1999年獲北京外國語大學(xué)英語語言文學(xué)碩士學(xué)位,2007年獲北京外國語大學(xué)英語語言文學(xué)博士學(xué)位。研究領(lǐng)域是英中對比語言學(xué)、英語史和語法化。 ?2北京外國語大學(xué)長青學(xué)者、外國語言研究所教授,廣西師范大學(xué)漓江學(xué)者、外國語學(xué)院教授;1985年北京外國語大學(xué)英語語言文學(xué)碩士畢業(yè),1996年獲英國劍橋大學(xué)英語歷史語言學(xué)博士學(xué)位。研究領(lǐng)域是語言學(xué)、英中對比與翻譯、雙語詞典學(xué)。 ?3 ideal此處的意思是a conception of something… as an object to be realized or aimed at(OED ideal n. 1a條下),譯成“理想”顯然不合適,因為paideia是一種理念而不是一種理想。本篇的主題是教育,因此這里譯為“教育理念”。 ?4 paideia源于希臘文παιδε?α,意思是child-rearing(OED paedeia條下),指對希臘民族品格的塑造(the shaping of Greek character,見Werner Jaeger. 1946. Paideia, the Ideals of Greek Culture, vol.1: ix)。據(jù)此,我們把原文冒號后的說明譯為“為城邦培養(yǎng)出理想的邦民”;原文注明僅限于男性,因此這里譯為“男童教養(yǎng)”。在討論古希臘文明的西方文獻里,paideia具有不可替代的地位,由于很難在英文里找到精確的對應(yīng)詞,英文文獻中一般保留希臘文原文并加以解釋,我們也照此辦理。 ?5 people這里指民族,顯然不是指機器譯文的“人”。
6 shared此處不能像機器那樣譯為“分享”。 ?7 memorization這里只能根據(jù)古代希臘和中國的歷史情況譯成“背會”,不能像機器那樣譯成“記憶”。 ?8 effectiveness這個詞的意思雖然是“有效性”,但我們通常不說辯論的有效性,只說是否有說服力。 ?9 citizen本義是an inhabitant of a city or (often) of a town(OED citizen n.1條下)。古希臘各國以城為邦,稱為城邦(city-state),城邦的居民即邦民。機器譯文里的“公民”是近代概念。 ?10小學(xué)教授的verbal and numerical skills就是讀寫和算術(shù)技能。機器譯為“語言和數(shù)學(xué)”,“語言”含義過于寬泛,“數(shù)學(xué)”顯得過于學(xué)術(shù)。 ?11盡管training這個詞有“訓(xùn)練”的意思,此處譯作“訓(xùn)練”容易讓人聯(lián)想到職業(yè)訓(xùn)練,與本文所闡述的教育宗旨不符,所以譯作“教養(yǎng)”。 ?12 gymnastics源自希臘文γυ?ν?σιον,意思是to train naked(OED gymnastics條下)。當(dāng)時男童進行體能訓(xùn)練時是赤體。機器譯文“體操”犯了用現(xiàn)代術(shù)語翻譯古代事物的錯誤。 ?13 military preparedness這里指戰(zhàn)備訓(xùn)練,保證一旦發(fā)生戰(zhàn)爭,男子可以隨時應(yīng)召出征。機器譯文“軍事準(zhǔn)備”讓人難以看出其與訓(xùn)練的關(guān)系。 ?14根據(jù)接下來的解釋,這里analytic譯為“分析綜合”。機械地譯成“分析”,不易于對接下文。
15 read本身既可表示識讀,又可表示閱讀。這里說的是剛?cè)胄W(xué)的孩子,因此譯成“識讀”。 ?16這里in due process的意思是:at the right time, not before(OALD due adj. . In due course條下),因此譯成“到了一定時候”。機器譯文“在適當(dāng)?shù)臅r候”意思不確切。 ?17識讀如同行路,念書時結(jié)結(jié)巴巴如同走路時磕磕絆絆。機器譯文“不費吹灰之力”未保留原文意象,也有些夸大其詞。 ?18 Hesiod根據(jù)原文發(fā)音譯為“赫謝德”,用隨文夾注的形式說明其身份,便于讀者理解。
19 learn by heart機器譯文“用心學(xué)習(xí)”是誤譯。 ?20將原文的被動式用主動式譯出,更符合中文習(xí)慣。DL(DeepLTranslator,以下簡稱DL)的“被當(dāng)作崇拜和模仿的榜樣”和GT(Google Translate,以下簡稱GT)的“被舉為贊美和模仿的榜樣”讀起來都顯得生硬。 ?21 the lyre萊爾琴。DL僅用單字“琴”,GT的“七弦琴”也未譯出“萊爾”,這樣就無法與下文the lyrical poets銜接。 ?22 that引導(dǎo)的從句是take care要達到的結(jié)果,這里可以譯成“陶冶”或“教導(dǎo)”。GT的“要小心”和DL的“注意”都不太確切。 ?23 lyrical poets古希臘的萊爾詩人,不同于寫戲劇、英雄史詩及挽歌的詩人。lyric poetry特指在萊爾琴伴奏下吟唱的詩歌。機器譯文“抒情詩人”無法讓讀者看到這種詩或詩人與萊爾琴的關(guān)系。 ?24 = make the childrens souls quite familiar with their harmonies and rhythms,轉(zhuǎn)換后的表達式更近似中文的表達習(xí)慣。DL的“使他們的和諧和節(jié)奏對孩子們的靈魂相當(dāng)熟悉”和GT的“使他們的和聲和節(jié)奏對孩子們的靈魂非常熟悉”都顯得生硬;另外,souls在此處指學(xué)童的心靈而不是他們的“靈魂”。
25 GT的“生活”和DL的“生命”都不夠確切。 ?26 harmonic intervals和聲音程,指兩個同時發(fā)出的音之間的音高差異。 ?27 encourage此處的意思是加油鼓勁,favorites此處指觀眾喜歡的賽手。DL的“鼓勵他們的寵兒”和GT的“鼓勵他們的最愛”都與語境不符。
28 areté的意思是:fulfillment, living up to ones full potential(Wikipedia areté條下),即“(人的)最佳狀態(tài)”。原文括號里的釋義successful不準(zhǔn)確。 ? 29 incidental這里的意思是:happening in connection with something else, but not as important as it, or not intended(OALD incidental, adj. 1條下),即“可有可無”。機器譯文“偶然的”不確切。
30 the means這里指the money that a person has(OALD means n. 2 條下),即“有錢”。機器譯文“有能力”意思不精確。 ?31 the upper-level schools高一等的學(xué)校,即下文所說的各個學(xué)院。GT的“高等學(xué)校”和DL的“高級學(xué)?!倍嘉茨軠?zhǔn)確傳達此處upper的確切意思。 ?32 Academy斜體,前面加定冠詞the,特指柏拉圖開設(shè)的學(xué)院。 ?33 school此處應(yīng)理解為“學(xué)派”(見下文school of thought),不能譯為“學(xué)校”。
34我們把independence of拆分成兩句話,譯成“自己的獨立性,而不是依附于……”,行文更順暢。GT的譯文“建立與使他們進入知識生活的大師的獨立性”顯示翻譯軟件對原文的解析出了差錯;DL的拆分譯法“他們的獨立性,不受那些讓他們進入知識生活的大師的影響”,行文雖然通暢,“不受影響”卻是誤譯。 ?35 subscribe此處的意思是:to give ones assent to a statement, opinion, proposal, scheme, or the like (OED subscribe v. 7條下),可以譯成“采納”或“贊同”。機器譯文“選擇”“接受”都不精確。 ?36 agonistic的意思是:polemic, combative, striving to overcome in argument(OED agonistic adj. 2條下),即“爭鋒”或“爭鳴”;diversity的意思是“多種多樣”,我們戰(zhàn)國時期的百家就是“多家”的意思,因此這里譯為“百家爭鳴的局面”。DL的“激動人心的多樣性”和GT的“激動性多樣性”都是誤譯。