徐吉軍
七是城市文明
在宋代,中國古代的城市發(fā)生了一個劃時代的變化,呈現(xiàn)出與過去不同的時代特色,這就是伊懋可等西方學(xué)者所稱的“城市革命”?!斑@個革命的鮮明特點(diǎn)”是:(1)放松了每縣一市、市須設(shè)在縣城的限制;(2)官市組織衰替,終至瓦解;(3)坊市分隔制度消滅,而代之以“自由得多的街道規(guī)劃,可以在城內(nèi)或四郊各處進(jìn)行買賣交易”;(4)有的城市在迅速擴(kuò)大,城外商業(yè)郊區(qū)蓬勃發(fā)展;(5)出現(xiàn)具有重要經(jīng)濟(jì)職能的“大批中小市鎮(zhèn)”。(施堅雅主編:《中華帝國晚期的城市》,葉光庭等人合譯,中華書局2000年,第24頁)與前代相比,宋代城市面貌確實(shí)發(fā)生了很大的變化,在許多方面達(dá)到很高的發(fā)展水平。具體表現(xiàn)為: 城市化程度明顯提高,在我國古代處于一個空前絕后的制高點(diǎn)上,不僅遠(yuǎn)超漢唐,且為明清所不及。據(jù)中國臺灣學(xué)者趙岡、陳鐘毅的研究,宋代是我國歷史上城市人口比例最高的一個朝代,尤其是南宋,城市人口比例從北宋的20.1%上升到22.4%。日本學(xué)者斯波義信通過對福建汀州、慶元府鄞縣、江東歙縣、兩浙西路鎮(zhèn)江府等實(shí)例研究,認(rèn)為“州治所在的縣大體上有百分之二十左右的人集中在城市里”,且尚不包括鎮(zhèn)以下的坊廓戶和短工、游民等。著名宋史學(xué)家漆俠等估計,北宋時期全國城市人口的比重約占全國總?cè)丝诘?2%,南宋城市人口比重高達(dá)13%—14%。城市規(guī)模、人口的擴(kuò)大和增加,標(biāo)志著近代城市雛形已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)。朱瑞熙在其論著《宋代社會研究》中根據(jù)《元豐九域志》統(tǒng)計,北宋全境擁有10萬戶以上的城市約有40多個,到宋徽宗崇寧年間上升到50多個,數(shù)量超過漢唐數(shù)倍。知名的有北京(今河北大名縣)、西京(今洛陽)、成都、蘇州、杭州、江寧(今南京)、福州、廣州、鄂州(今武昌)等地區(qū)性經(jīng)濟(jì)中心城市,遍及全國。還有不計其數(shù)的大大小小超過20萬常住人口的中等城市。
北宋都城東京(今河南開封)、南宋都城臨安(今浙江杭州)和唐代長安(今陜西西安),被西方漢學(xué)界并稱為中國古代三大國際性的大都城,是當(dāng)時世界上人口最多、經(jīng)濟(jì)最繁華的大都市。北宋首都東京和南宋首都臨安,都是人口超過百萬的國際大都會,多的時候更是有150萬左右的城市常住人口。南宋臨安城周邊還形成了15個赤鎮(zhèn)(指唐、宋、元各代京都所治的鎮(zhèn)),類似于環(huán)繞都城的衛(wèi)星城鎮(zhèn)。
由于宋代城市的快速發(fā)展、高度發(fā)展,城市化過程中出現(xiàn)了交通擁擠、飲水困難、生態(tài)失衡、衛(wèi)生不良、環(huán)境惡化、火災(zāi)頻頻、疾疫肆虐等諸多問題。以房價為例,宋代城市的房價很高,巔峰時期的開封和臨安,土地極其緊張,寸土寸金,住宅緊缺,一房難求,可以說是世界第一。市場經(jīng)濟(jì)雖然非?;钴S,但市井亦隨之產(chǎn)生了諸多亂象,造成市場的無序化狀態(tài),如市場中一些奸商和有“攔街虎”“九條龍”之類綽號的無賴、破落戶,唯利是圖,以次充好,乃至公然造假、欺行霸市以及搶掠現(xiàn)象迭出,甚至關(guān)乎人命的醫(yī)藥也不能幸免。街市上各種騙局層出不窮,被稱為“白日賊”的騙徒,在買賣貨物過程中采取諸多手法行騙。
城市中人口快速膨脹、龐大而又構(gòu)成復(fù)雜,帶來多樣化的生存方式。這些問題,都促使宋代統(tǒng)治者采取措施,通過建立并完善城市消防體制,加強(qiáng)城市垃圾的處理、疫病的防治等公共事務(wù)管理,建立社會救濟(jì)制度的辦法,以積極的姿態(tài)應(yīng)對挑戰(zhàn),由此促成了我國古代城市管理制度的重大創(chuàng)新。按美國著名漢學(xué)家施堅雅主編《中華帝國晚期的城市》里的話來說:“大城市變得更大了,城市人口大大增長了,城市體系的結(jié)合更緊密了;但在所有這些變化中,最重大的變化卻是原為都邑的中心地的比例大為減少了。城市發(fā)展的這一特點(diǎn),是一場不斷推進(jìn)著的革命的信號,這場革命是整個社會的管理方式上的革命。”特別是廂坊制的確立,使各項(xiàng)管理職能得以加強(qiáng)。在中央工部所屬都水監(jiān)下,設(shè)置了街道司、河渠司、溝河司等機(jī)構(gòu),與各級地方官府共同管理著所在城市的水陸交通。以北宋東京城的政府管理為例,統(tǒng)治者為加強(qiáng)東京城公共事務(wù)的管理,設(shè)置三條系統(tǒng):一是作為東京城管理核心機(jī)構(gòu)的開封府行政系統(tǒng);二是設(shè)有廂典、書手、街子、行官等職位的廂坊系統(tǒng),主管檢驗(yàn)救火、督察盜賊等行政事物,并負(fù)責(zé)把每個廂坊的居民組織起來,共同參與城市管理;三是建立軍巡制與軍巡鋪(全世界最早也是我國最早的專職消防隊(duì))的軍事系統(tǒng),負(fù)責(zé)掌管巡邏和追捕盜賊等職責(zé),并與各級機(jī)構(gòu)相配合加入到城市管理之中。東京城這種全方位、多層次的城市立體管理機(jī)構(gòu)的設(shè)置,具體體現(xiàn)在對城市規(guī)劃、城市交通、公用設(shè)施、土地使用、居民飲水、環(huán)境衛(wèi)生、消防安全以及街道、溝渠的維護(hù)與管理上,使其煥發(fā)出新的生機(jī)與活力,在某些方面體現(xiàn)出了現(xiàn)代城市管理的特點(diǎn),從而在中國城市發(fā)展史上創(chuàng)造了不小的奇跡,至今仍閃爍著獨(dú)特的光芒。以城市交通為例,東京、臨安作為王朝的政治中心,驛路和運(yùn)河通道通向其他各地,形成一個嚴(yán)密的、暢通的水陸交通網(wǎng)。在住宅上,統(tǒng)治者為了緩解住房壓力,維護(hù)社會安定,推出廉租房制度。廉租房不僅價格低廉,在災(zāi)荒時還予以部分減免。在消防上,政府對防火高度重視,管理制度較有成效,為后世的城市消防制度開創(chuàng)了先例。其時東京、臨安等城市建立了非常完備的防火組織和專門的消防隊(duì),時稱“潛火隊(duì)”,是世界上最早的一支城市專業(yè)消防隊(duì),組織嚴(yán)密,設(shè)備齊全,特別是南宋中葉以后臨安的消防組織和措施,“是當(dāng)時世界上所有城市最完善的,已與近代城市的消防組織相類似”。據(jù)統(tǒng)計,臨安共有防隅軍兵二十隊(duì),潛火軍兵七隊(duì),總?cè)藬?shù)達(dá)到了5100人。同法國巴黎于1699年建立的第一個消防隊(duì)相比,要早490余年。唧筒(水泵)的發(fā)明和使用具有劃時代的貢獻(xiàn),這種運(yùn)用柱塞式泵浦原理而研制的滅火器具,可以說是我國最早出現(xiàn)的消防泵浦。飲用水的供應(yīng)和保護(hù),生活垃圾的處理等,也比過去有了較大的進(jìn)步。
隨著城市中社會貧富分化的加劇,促使統(tǒng)治者越來越重視對貧困市民的救助(在特定情況下也包括普通市民、流動人員等諸多社會群體),探索有別于鄉(xiāng)村的城市救助體制。以官方為主導(dǎo)、以社會救濟(jì)和社會保障為主要內(nèi)容的社會事業(yè)有了很大的發(fā)展,開始朝建立社會保障體系的方向發(fā)展。其中面向貧民和窮民的社會救濟(jì)事業(yè)發(fā)達(dá),救濟(jì)范圍空前廣泛,取得了前所未有的突出成就。如建立了較為完備的倉儲備荒體系,制定了較為完善的賑災(zāi)救荒法規(guī),創(chuàng)立了功能較為齊備的濟(jì)貧恤窮設(shè)施,具有制度化、系統(tǒng)化、規(guī)范化的特點(diǎn)。
在這一時期,中國歷史上第一次出現(xiàn)了城市平民階層,呈現(xiàn)出中國古代社會前所未有的時代開放性。入宋以后,隨著城市坊市分離制度的破壞,城市商品經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展和財富的增長,商品意識也在迅速地向社會生活的各個角落滲透,知識產(chǎn)品已經(jīng)商品化,并在一定范圍內(nèi)建立了知識產(chǎn)權(quán)保護(hù)制度。城市居民的生活已頗為自由、放縱、奢華,正是城市居民這種頗為自由、奢華、享樂的生活風(fēng)氣和城市社會生活娛樂區(qū)的需求,使宋代帶有明顯消費(fèi)性和商品化色彩的城市文化娛樂活動日益興盛起來,成為一種普遍的文化存在。市民階層的出現(xiàn),世俗文化與世俗經(jīng)濟(jì)的形成與繁榮,意味著中國“市民社會”已具雛形,開啟了中國社會的平民化進(jìn)程。市民的社會觀念和生活消費(fèi)風(fēng)尚更是領(lǐng)先于全國。中國傳統(tǒng)的“農(nóng)本工商末”觀點(diǎn),在這里得到了徹底的否定,人們對工商業(yè)的社會價值給予了充分的肯定,從而使社會上出現(xiàn)了全民皆商的新風(fēng)尚。傳統(tǒng)的“貴義賤利”的價值觀念已經(jīng)蕩然無存。當(dāng)時人們生活中的婚姻、喪葬、生育、科舉、行醫(yī)等,皆以錢為中心。講求效率和速度,現(xiàn)代意義上的“快餐店”、旅游圖、旅游紀(jì)念品,在南宋臨安隨處可見。簡體字已經(jīng)在城市中開始應(yīng)用。與此同時,市民也追求自身的物質(zhì)和精神享受。而此時,一種新的組織形式大量涌現(xiàn),那就是行、作等的產(chǎn)生。行即市場的組織,作是手工業(yè)作坊的組織。這是一種官商結(jié)合的行會組織,為官府對城市進(jìn)行有效管理的一種手段。正如楊寬《中國古代都城制度史研究》一書所描述的,“由于社會經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展,全國性市場的形成,各種行業(yè)的商人聯(lián)合組成‘行或‘市的成長, 使得都城內(nèi)外,水上交通要道上新的日用商品的‘行或‘市興起,在這個基礎(chǔ)上又逐漸發(fā)展成新的‘街市,于是‘街市就代替了過去封閉式的‘市。隨著‘街市的發(fā)展和坊巷中商業(yè)交易的開展,逐漸形成大街小巷的交通網(wǎng),于是大街小巷的結(jié)構(gòu)就代替過去‘街坊的結(jié)構(gòu)”。(上海古籍出版社1993年版,第201頁)
此外,市民文化蓬勃發(fā)展。帶有明顯消費(fèi)性和商品化色彩的城市文化娛樂活動日益興盛起來,成為一種普遍的文化存在。各大城市中,出現(xiàn)了眾多獨(dú)立的供人們娛樂消費(fèi)的綜合型游藝場所。據(jù)《東京夢華錄》卷二《東角樓街卷》載,北宋京城汴京瓦子遍布,有勾欄50余座。南宋首都臨安城內(nèi)外的瓦舍多達(dá)23處,其中僅北瓦就有勾欄13座。瓦舍里匯集了豐富多彩的娛樂活動和伎藝表演,尤其是在節(jié)慶期間,更是無比繁盛,演出不受時間的限制和氣候的影響,“不以風(fēng)雨寒暑,白晝通夜,駢闐如此”。琴棋書畫等高雅藝術(shù)也是枝繁葉茂,風(fēng)格多樣,并越來越呈現(xiàn)出專業(yè)化的趨勢。話本、雜劇和流行曲譜的增多,文學(xué)社團(tuán)的形成,藝術(shù)品交易市場的出現(xiàn),這些都不斷豐富著城市生活的內(nèi)涵。特別是五花八門的休閑活動,成為吸引城市居民和外地來客的重要因素,有力地促進(jìn)了市民文化的發(fā)展。誠如法國著名漢學(xué)家謝和耐《中國社會史》所說,中國“11—13世紀(jì)的人要比唐代、六朝或漢代的人更頻繁和更樂于遷徙……農(nóng)村生活的艱難、城市小業(yè)主的數(shù)目之巨和名目繁多、城市的吸引力、財富和娛樂中心等,這一切都引發(fā)了流民和貧苦農(nóng)民涌向大城鎮(zhèn)的浪潮”。
在過去,人們往往將市民那種“頗為自由、放縱,過著享樂的日子”,視為奢侈之舉。其實(shí),這是一種片面的、帶有封建落后觀念的舊見解,與時代格格不入,因?yàn)樗麄兒鲆暳耸忻窀叨茸吭降膭?chuàng)業(yè)活動和創(chuàng)業(yè)精神,無法理解生產(chǎn)與消費(fèi)兩者之間的密切關(guān)系。城中酒樓茶館等店鋪、市場的熱鬧喧嘩,勾欄瓦子、書肆、會社、學(xué)校、寺觀等的繁多,正是顯示了城市經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化的蓬勃活力,引導(dǎo)了社會經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化的競爭性、開放性,顯示出超越舊傳統(tǒng)的新時代的景況。
總之,與前代相比,宋代城市文明在許多方面達(dá)到很高的發(fā)展水平。對此,海內(nèi)外一些史學(xué)家認(rèn)為中國古代城市在宋代已經(jīng)背離了傳統(tǒng)的格局而進(jìn)入了真正的 “城市革命” 時期。日本學(xué)者宮崎市定在《東洋的文藝復(fù)興與西洋的文藝復(fù)興》一文中,則把宋代城市的發(fā)展比作“東方文藝復(fù)興”。雖然對宋代城市的發(fā)展水平還不能給予過高的估計,但若從中國古代城市化的整個歷史發(fā)展進(jìn)程來看,宋代無疑是一個重要的轉(zhuǎn)折時期。其后元、 明、 清三代的城市模式和格局,基本上都是在宋代城市模式的影響下發(fā)展起來的,由此亦可見宋代城市在中國古代城市發(fā)展史上的地位和影響。
(作者系浙江省社科院歷史所所長。)
During the Song dynasty (960-1279), Chinese cities underwent unprecedented changes in what some Western scholars such as Mark Elvin described as a “urban revolution". Among the distinct features of this revolution are: (1) the relaxation of the restriction that only one officially controlled market could be allowed in every county capital; (2) the decline and eventual collapse of the official marketing organization; (3) the scrap of the Fang-Shi (walled ward) System, under which no marketplace could be freely organized; (4) the rapid expansion of urban centers as well as the booming development of commerce in suburban areas; and (5) the emergence of a large number of market towns with important economic functions.
Urbanization saw marked increased in the Song dynasty, unsurpassed by any Chinese dynasties before or after. It not only far outstripped its predecessors, even its successors failed to reach such a height. One study put the proportion of urban population in the Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279)at 20.1% and 22.4% respectively. Another deemed the figure to be roughly 20%, not taking account into some of the migrant workers and vagabonds. The estimates of a third study were lower, 12% for Northern Song ?and 13% for Southern Song , but they are still among the highest in Chinese history.
Growing urbanization and urban populations heralded the birth of modern cities. According to statistics, over 40 major urban and commercial centers, which increased to above 50 during the reign of the Huizong emperor (1082-1135), had a population of more than 100,000 households in Northern Song, including Xijing (present-day Luoyang), Chengdu, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Jiangning (present-day Nanjing), and numerous medium-sized cities with a population exceeding 200,000.
Together with the Tang (618-907) capital Changan (present-day Xian), Dongjing (present-day Kaifeng), capital of Northern Song, and Linan (present-day Hanagzhou), capital of Southern Song, are regarded as the three most metropolitan and prosperous cities of ancient China, the latter two regularly housing a population in excess of one million, and over 1.5 million sometimes. Around Linan, 15 satellite towns also popped up.
On the other hand, rapid development and urbanization also brought myriad problems, including traffic jams, shortage of fresh water, environmental degradation, inadequate sanitation, frequent fire outbreaks and spread of diseases. Housing prices in Kaifeng and Linan at their heyday were believed to be the worlds highest. While market was developed more than ever, irregularities and illegal activities were also spawned. For example, unscrupulous merchants and street rascals openly sold inferior, even fake, goods. They also bullied those who were trying to do a proper business.
These problems prompted the Song rulers to adopt a series of measures and improve the urban management. A comprehensive fire protection was established, urban waste management and treatment was strengthened, disease prevention mechanisms were installed and a social relief structure was put into place, among other administrative innovations. Or as the US sinologist G. William Skinner argued in his edited volume The City in Late Imperial China, “The great cities were greater, the urban population vastly enlarged, the integration of city systems much tighter; but perhaps the most significant change of all was the greatly reduced proportion of central places that were capitals. For this feature of urban development signaled an ongoing revolution in the manner in which the entire society was managed.”
Of particular significance is the establishment of the Xiang-Fang System, which replaced the previous Li-Fang System with free movement and mixed land use. Fang is generally a rectangularly residential quarter divided by a main road and branching street, and Xiang is the street linking dwelling units. Essentially, every Xiang-Fang is akin to a neighborhood community or a subdistrict in todays China. Specialized positions were set up in each Xiang-Fang for fire safety and guarding against thievery and burglary. Residents in each Xiang-Fang were also enlisted to help with urban management. From transportation to fresh water, from sanitation to public facilities, major cities of Song dynasty showed characteristics only found in modern urban management.
To alleviate housing pressures and strengthen social stability, Song rulers offered low-rent housing to residents, which could be further lowered or exempted if crop failures struck. In Linan, the Southern Song capital, the worlds earlier professional fire brigade was born. Indeed, in the latter years of the Southern Song, Linan boasted seven such professional brigades. In 1699, roughly five centuries later, the first professional fire brigade was formed in Paris.
Meanwhile, a consumption-oriented urban culture featuring a rich selection of entertainment options flourished. In Northern Song, Washe (also known as Washi or Wazi), a special area for public entertainment, appeared. According to Dongjing Menghua Lu, or The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor, a book that recorded in detail the urban life of the Northern Song capital, Washe could be found in every part of the city, with over 50 Goulan, the theatres in the form of fenced-off rings. In Southern Song, the number grew further: as many as 23 washe were in the capital Linan, and in Beiwa (literally Northern Washe) alone, the largest one, there were 13 Goulan. Day and night, rain or shine, entertainment and performances would be on. Music, chess, calligraphy and painting—the so-called four arts of Chinese scholars—also flourished, and specialized markets for artworks appeared. Diversified entertainment, culture and leisure activities became strong magnets for urban residents and migrant populations, which further spurred the development of urban culture. As the French sinologist Jacques Gernet observed in A History of Chinese Civilization, “The men of the eleventh to thirteenth centuries travelled about more often and more willingly than those of the Tang, Six Dynasties, and Han periods. … the difficulties of rural life, the number and diversity of the small urban trades, and the attraction of the towns, centers of wealth and entertainment, caused a flow of vagabonds and impoverished peasants toward the big agglomerations.”
The social attitudes of urban residents and their consumption-centered lifestyles were not only far ahead of their rural peers but of their times. Merchant class was much respected, and preference for sons over daughters was upended. Urban residents had no qualms about pursuing material as well as spiritual pleasures. Efficiency and speed, hallmarks of a modern society, were much valued. Although scholars of latter dynasties derided it as debauch and depraved, they overlooked the dynamism, the entrepreneurship and the liberalized attitudes within the lifestyle, precisely because these values went against the traditions.
While Songs urban development should not be overestimated, successive dynasties all followed its city models and layout. All in all, urban civilization in Song dynasty reached quite a height in various aspects and the Japanese sinologist Miyazaki Ichisada called it “the renaissance in the Orient”.