A Brief History of Gardening 園藝簡(jiǎn)史

蒂姆·蘭伯特 陳棟

Gardening in the Ancient World

The earliest gardens were grown for practical reasons. When man became civilized an upper class emerged with the leisure to enjoy purely decorative gardens. They also had servants （or slaves） to do the gardening for them.

Gardening in Ancient Egypt

In the hot and arid1 climate of ancient Egypt， rich people liked to rest in the shade of trees. They created gardens enclosed by walls with trees planted in rows. Sometimes the Egyptians planted alternating species. They grew trees like sycamores2， date palms， fig-trees， nut trees， and pomegranate trees. They also grew willows. The Egyptians also grew vineyards. （Although beer was the drink of the common people; the rich liked drinking wine）. The Egyptians also grew a wide variety of flowers including roses， poppies， irises， daisies， and cornflowers， and they liked their gardens to have rectangular ponds. Sometimes they were stocked with fish.

The Egyptians believed that the gods liked gardens and so temples usually had gardens by them. In ancient Egypt different trees were associated with different gods， so gardens had religious significance. However in Egypt there was no strict division between gardens for pleasure and gardens for produce. As well as being beautiful gardens were used to grow fruit and vegetables and to produce wine and olive oil.

Gardening in Ancient Iraq

In the ancient world beautiful gardens were created in what is now Iraq. The Assyrians came from Iraq and in the period 900 BC–612 BC they ruled a great empire in the Middle East. Like the upper-class Egyptians， Assyrians enjoyed gardens. They created large hunting parks but they also made pleasure gardens irrigated by water canals. The Assyrians planted trees such as palms and cypresses. When the Assyrian Empire was destroyed in 612? BC， the city-state of Babylon created another huge empire. King Nebuchadnezzar is supposed to have built the hanging gardens of Babylon， one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. According to tradition his wife Amyitis missed the mountainous terrain of her homeland， so the king built a stepped terrace garden for her.

The Babylonians liked formal gardens. They enjoyed the shade of trees planted in straight lines. In 539 BC the Babylonian Empire was destroyed by the Persians who created yet another great empire. The Persians were superb gardeners. They built underground aqueducts to bring water to their gardens without it evaporating on the way. These were called qanats. Like the earlier civilizations， the Persians grew fruit trees and fragrant shrubs and flowers. Their gardens also contained pools， fountains and watercourses or rills.

Greek Gardening

The Greeks were not great gardeners. They sometimes planted trees to provide shade around temples and other public places but gardens were rare. The Greeks did grow flowers but usually in containers. Although Greek travelers admired the gardens of the east， in Greece gardens were usually grown for practical reasons. The Greeks grew orchards， vineyards and vegetable gardens.

Roman Gardening

When they conquered Egypt in 30 BC， the Romans introduced eastern ideas about gardening. Rich Romans created gardens next to their palaces and villas. The Romans were masters of the art of topiary3. Roman gardens were adorned with statues and sculptures and laid out with hedges and vines. They contained a wide variety of flowers including acanthus， cyclamen， hyacinth and iris. Wealthy Romans built houses around a courtyard which usually contained a colonnaded4 porch， a pool， and a fountain as well as beds of flowers.

Gardening in the Middle Ages

After the fall of Rome， gardening declined in Western Europe. However the church still made some gardens for growing herbs （e.g. for medicines） and some flowers were grown to decorate church altars.

Islamic Gardening

In the 7th century the Arabs created a huge empire. When they conquered Persia they took over many Persian ideas about gardens. Islamic gardens were surrounded by walls and very often they were divided into 4 by watercourses. In the center was a pool or pavilion. Islamic gardens also contained rills and fountains， and were decorated with mosaics and glazed tiles. Rows of plane or cypress were planted for shade.

In the early 8th century the Arabs conquered Spain. The Moors as they were called， grew ash， laurel， hazel， walnut， poplar， willow， and elm. They also grew a wide variety of flowers including roses， hollyhocks， narcissus and wallflowers.

Gardening in Medieval Europe

Gradually order was restored in Europe and by the late 13th century the rich began to grow gardens for pleasure. The gardens were walled both to protect them from wild animals and to provide seclusion. In the 14th and 15th centuries， gardens were planted with lawns sprinkled with fragrant herbs. They had raised flowerbeds and trellises5 of roses or vines.

16th and 17th Century Gardening

In the 16th and 17th century， symmetry， proportion and balance became important. Very often gardens were laid out with a central axis leading down from the house with a number of cross axes forming a grid pattern. Flowerbeds were often laid out in squares， separated by gravel paths.

16th century gardens were adorned with sculptures， fountains and topiary. Often they contained water jokes （unsuspecting visitors were sprayed with jets of water）. Water organs played music or imitated bird song. Gardens also often contained grottoes （cave-like buildings）， and intricate patterns like knots were made by planting lines of box6 and herbs like lavender. Hedge mazes became very popular in Europe.

18th Century Gardening

In the early 18th century many people preferred a more ‘natural style. Gardens often contained shrubberies， grottoes， pavilions， bridges， and follies7. In the North American colonies， life was， at first， rough but by the end of the 17th century， the wealthy began to create pleasure gardens. However the Americans preferred more formal gardens.

19th Century Gardening

In 1804 the Horticultural Society was formed.

In 1829 Dr Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward accidentally discovered that if plants were kept sealed under glass they formed their own micro-climate. Creating sealed micro-climates made it much easier to transport plants around the world.

In the 19th century， gardeners began to build large greenhouses or conservatories8 to provide plants with both heat and light. The largest was Crystal Palace， which was built in 1851 by Joseph Paxton （1806–1865）.

Gardens attached to suburban villas became important. A new style of garden evolved called gardenesque9， which displayed a wide variety of plants in a limited space.

Towns and cities boomed in size. Workers were herded together in cramped and unsanitary houses， but in the later half of the 19th century local authorities began creating public parks for them.

20th Century Gardening

At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century， some gardeners were influenced by the arts and crafts movement. They had an idealized view of old-fashioned cottage gardens and designed gardens with trellises of flowers， neat hedges and old-fashioned English flowers.

There was a new movement in architecture and gardening called modernism. The modernists rejected copying old styles of gardening and advocated starting afresh using modern materials. Modernists liked gardens to be ‘uncluttered.

In 1926 a German engineer called Andreas Stihl developed the chain saw， and in 1963 the first hover mower went on sale.

In the 20th century， as incomes rose gardening became a popular hobby. Meanwhile the Garden History Society was founded in 1965 and the Museum of Garden History opened in London in 1977.

古代世界園藝

最早的花園是出于很實(shí)際的原因營(yíng)建的。在人類走向文明的過(guò)程中出現(xiàn)了上層階級(jí)，他們有閑情逸致來(lái)欣賞純裝飾性的花園，還有仆人（或奴隸）來(lái)為其打理花園。

古埃及園藝

古埃及氣候炎熱干燥，富人們喜歡在樹(shù)蔭下休息。他們建起帶圍墻的花園，園內(nèi)種下成排的樹(shù)木。有的時(shí)候，埃及人還會(huì)間植各種樹(shù)木。他們會(huì)種西科莫無(wú)花果樹(shù)、棗椰、無(wú)花果、堅(jiān)果樹(shù)、石榴樹(shù)，以及柳樹(shù)。此外，他們也會(huì)營(yíng)建葡萄園（不過(guò)普羅大眾喝的是啤酒，富人才喜歡喝紅酒）。埃及人種植的花卉也豐富多樣，包括玫瑰、罌粟、鳶尾花、雛菊和矢車菊等。他們還喜歡在花園里建長(zhǎng)方形的池塘，有時(shí)里面養(yǎng)魚(yú)。

埃及人認(rèn)為，神靈們喜愛(ài)花園，所以廟宇旁邊常常會(huì)有花園。在古埃及，不同的樹(shù)與不同的神明相關(guān)聯(lián)，所以花園有宗教意義。然而在埃及，用于游樂(lè)的花園和用于生產(chǎn)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的花園并沒(méi)有嚴(yán)格的劃分。一座花園既可以漂漂亮亮，也可以用來(lái)種植果蔬、生產(chǎn)葡萄酒和橄欖油。

古伊拉克園藝

在今天的伊拉克境內(nèi)，古代曾建造過(guò)美麗的花園。亞述人的祖居地在伊拉克，公元前900—前612年間，他們?cè)谥袞|統(tǒng)治著一個(gè)龐大的帝國(guó)。和埃及的上層階級(jí)一樣，亞述人也十分喜歡花園。他們建造了大型的狩獵場(chǎng)，也修建了用水渠灌溉的游樂(lè)花園，種棕櫚和柏樹(shù)之類的樹(shù)。當(dāng)亞述帝國(guó)在公元前612年被摧毀時(shí)，巴比倫城邦創(chuàng)造了又一個(gè)龐大的帝國(guó)。據(jù)稱，尼布甲尼撒王建造了古代世界七大奇跡之一的巴比倫空中花園。據(jù)傳說(shuō)，他的妻子安美依迪絲想念家鄉(xiāng)的山嶺，于是國(guó)王便為她建造了一個(gè)階梯式的臺(tái)地花園。

巴比倫人喜歡規(guī)整的花園。他們將樹(shù)木沿直線栽種，享受它們帶來(lái)的陰涼。公元前539年，巴比倫帝國(guó)被波斯人所滅，后者又創(chuàng)造了一個(gè)大帝國(guó)。波斯人是極為出色的園藝師。他們建造了地下水渠，將水引入花園，同時(shí)又避免水分一路蒸發(fā)。這些地下水渠被稱為坎兒井。和更早期的文明社會(huì)相似，波斯人會(huì)種植果樹(shù)、芳香灌木和花卉。他們的花園還有水池、噴泉以及水道或小溪。

希臘園藝

希臘人不擅園藝。他們有時(shí)會(huì)在廟宇或其他公共場(chǎng)所種植樹(shù)木以庇蔭，但花園卻少之又少。希臘人倒是會(huì)種花，但通常是在容器里栽種。雖然希臘的旅行者傾慕東方的花園，但在希臘，造園通常出于實(shí)用目的。希臘人會(huì)修建果園、葡萄園和菜園。

羅馬園藝

公元前30年，羅馬人攻占埃及，引入了東方的園藝?yán)砟?。羅馬富人在他們的府邸、別墅旁邊修建起一座座花園。羅馬人是林木造型藝術(shù)大師。羅馬的花園以雕像、雕塑作為裝飾，以樹(shù)籬和藤蔓布置花園景觀，里面會(huì)種上各種各樣的花卉，包括茛苕、仙客來(lái)、風(fēng)信子和鳶尾花。羅馬富人圍繞著庭院建造房屋，庭院里通常會(huì)有一條柱廊、一處水池、一口噴泉，以及多個(gè)花圃。

中世紀(jì)園藝

羅馬帝國(guó)滅亡后，園藝在西歐日漸沒(méi)落。然而教堂仍會(huì)建造一些花園，用以種植香草（如藥草）和一些裝飾教堂圣壇的花卉。

伊斯蘭園藝

7世紀(jì)，阿拉伯人建立起一個(gè)龐大帝國(guó)。他們征服波斯時(shí)，承襲了波斯人在園藝方面的很多理念。伊斯蘭的花園四周環(huán)繞著圍墻，通常由水道分成4個(gè)區(qū)域，中心是一個(gè)水池或一座亭子;花園里還有小溪和噴泉，并裝飾有馬賽克和釉面瓷磚，園中栽著成排的懸鈴木或柏樹(shù)，可以遮陰。

8世紀(jì)初，阿拉伯人征服了西班牙。這群被稱為摩爾人的征服者會(huì)種植梣樹(shù)、月桂、榛樹(shù)、核桃樹(shù)、楊樹(shù)、柳樹(shù)和榆樹(shù)，還有各色花卉，包括玫瑰、蜀葵、水仙和桂竹香。

中世紀(jì)歐洲園藝

隨著歐洲秩序的逐漸恢復(fù)，到13世紀(jì)后期，富人們開(kāi)始種植花園供消遣?；▓@的四周立起了圍墻，既可以抵御野獸，又可以阻擋外界的塵囂。14、15世紀(jì)，花園里鋪起了草坪，草坪上零星點(diǎn)綴著香草，此外還有花壇和爬滿玫瑰或藤蔓的花架。

16及17世紀(jì)園藝

16、17世紀(jì)，對(duì)稱性、比例和平衡變得很重要?；▓@通常會(huì)從房屋延伸出一條中軸線，一路下來(lái)多條橫軸與之交錯(cuò)，形成網(wǎng)格圖案?；▔ǔ１坏[石鋪就的小徑分隔成一個(gè)個(gè)方格。

16世紀(jì)的花園會(huì)用雕塑、噴泉和園藝灌木進(jìn)行裝飾，里面常設(shè)有噴水機(jī)關(guān)（毫無(wú)防備的訪客會(huì)被水滋到），水風(fēng)琴會(huì)彈奏音樂(lè)或模仿動(dòng)聽(tīng)的鳥(niǎo)鳴，花園里還常會(huì)有洞室（洞穴般的建筑）。種下一排排黃楊和薰衣草等香草，形成如繩結(jié)一般的復(fù)雜圖案。樹(shù)籬迷宮當(dāng)時(shí)在歐洲非常流行。

18世紀(jì)園藝

18世紀(jì)初期，很多人偏好更加“自然”的園藝風(fēng)格?；▓@中往往有灌木、巖室、亭子、橋梁和裝飾性建筑。在北美殖民地，最初的日子很艱苦，但到了17世紀(jì)末，富人們也開(kāi)始建造起用于游樂(lè)的花園。不過(guò)美國(guó)人偏好更規(guī)整的花園。

19世紀(jì)園藝

1804年，園藝協(xié)會(huì)成立。

1829年，納撒尼爾·巴格肖·沃德醫(yī)生意外地發(fā)現(xiàn)，如果植物用玻璃罩住密封保存，它們會(huì)形成自己的微氣候。創(chuàng)造密封的微氣候環(huán)境使得植物在全球的運(yùn)輸容易了許多。

19世紀(jì)，園藝師們開(kāi)始建造大型溫室或稱玻璃暖房，為植物提供熱和光。最大的溫室要數(shù)水晶宮，它于1851年由約瑟夫·帕克斯頓（1806—1865）建造。

與郊區(qū)別墅相連的花園日益受到重視，發(fā)展出了一種被稱為“花園式”的新園林設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格，這一風(fēng)格旨在將各色各樣的植物在有限的空間里展示出來(lái)。

城鎮(zhèn)和城市的規(guī)模激增。工人們擠住在狹小而不衛(wèi)生的房子里，但到了19世紀(jì)下半葉，地方當(dāng)局開(kāi)始為這個(gè)群體建造公園。

20世紀(jì)園藝

19世紀(jì)末20世紀(jì)初，一些園藝師受到了工藝美術(shù)運(yùn)動(dòng)的影響。他們對(duì)舊式的村舍花園有種理想化的看法，會(huì)用花架、修剪整齊的樹(shù)籬和老派的英國(guó)花卉來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)花園。

后來(lái)建筑和園藝領(lǐng)域又出現(xiàn)了一場(chǎng)新的運(yùn)動(dòng)，叫作現(xiàn)代主義?，F(xiàn)代主義者拒絕復(fù)制舊的園藝風(fēng)格，主張用現(xiàn)代材料另起爐灶?，F(xiàn)代主義者喜歡“簡(jiǎn)潔”風(fēng)格的花園。

1926年，一位叫安德烈亞斯·斯蒂爾的德國(guó)工程師研制出鏈鋸，1963年，第一款懸浮式割草機(jī)上市銷售。

20世紀(jì)，隨著收入的增加，園藝成為一種大眾愛(ài)好。與此同時(shí)，園藝歷史協(xié)會(huì)于1965年成立，園藝歷史博物館于1977年在倫敦開(kāi)放。? ? ? ? ? ? ?□

（譯者為“《英語(yǔ)世界》杯”翻譯大賽獲獎(jiǎng)?wù)撸?/p>