湯丹文 徐學(xué)敏 黃麗娟
前年夏天,在韓國首爾,筆者第一次見識到新安沉船和它運(yùn)載的貨物——當(dāng)時,韓國國立中央博物館正推出“新安海底文化財發(fā)掘40周年紀(jì)念”大型展覽。
在特展館內(nèi),筆者見到了整箱整箱保存完好的龍泉窯瓷器,碼得齊齊整整的中國各朝各代銅錢,還有不可計數(shù)的各類金屬器、紫檀木、香料以及工藝品等等,這些都讓我震撼不已。
新安船因為沉沒而被歷史封存,600多年后,它再次出水“復(fù)活”,呈現(xiàn)在世人面前。1976年起,韓國考古界組織力量開始打撈。經(jīng)過十余年考古發(fā)掘,其出水文物數(shù)量之多、質(zhì)量之精、品種之豐富震驚世界,也讓韓國平添了許多國寶級的文物。
新安沉船與寧波的關(guān)聯(lián)是不言而喻的。在這次特展上,主辦方特意把新安沉船的始發(fā)港寧波(慶元港)作為重點(diǎn)予以了介紹。浙江博物館、寧波天一閣博物館等也借展了許多文物古籍,以佐證沉船那個年代,中國對日本的貿(mào)易情形和文化的傳播。
新安沉船是1323年一條駛向日本博多、在韓國新安木浦附近海域沉沒的中日貿(mào)易船,這顯然沒有什么異議。
引起爭議的是新安沉船的身份——它是官方的貿(mào)易船還是“私舶”(民間貿(mào)易船)甚至是一條走私船?它是一條日本籍的船只,還是中國的元船?它確定是從慶元港,也就是現(xiàn)在的寧波港封艙出發(fā)的嗎?
新安沉船是從慶元開始它的最后之旅,這是大多數(shù)研究新安沉船學(xué)者的觀點(diǎn)。他們在談?wù)撔掳渤链瑫r,往往提起寫有“至治三(叁)年”(1323)年號的木簡。這些木簡是一些貨物的標(biāo)記,時間范圍從4月23日到6月3日。基于此,新安沉船的貨主被認(rèn)為是在至治三年4月到6月的三個月內(nèi)購買商品,然后由慶元的市舶司查檢,同年6月內(nèi)啟航的。
慶元從宋代以來一直就是對日的貿(mào)易港。與泉州、廣州相比,慶元離日本最近,通常情況下七八天即可到達(dá)日本博多,也就是現(xiàn)在的福岡。
但也有學(xué)者提出新安沉船有可能是從福州或溫州出發(fā)的。持福州出發(fā)觀點(diǎn)的學(xué)者當(dāng)推中國古船史專家席飛龍。他認(rèn)為,從船中運(yùn)載諸多瓷器的窯址看,它們沿閩江運(yùn)到福州是很方便的,而新安沉船是福船,應(yīng)在福建建造,所以,新安沉船是從福州出發(fā)更為合理。也有學(xué)者指出“元代的稅局設(shè)在泉州,商船為了逃稅,往往從福州開航”。按這一邏輯推斷,新安沉船或許是條走私船了。
“水銀”(網(wǎng)名),是寧波一位地方文史愛好者,他對新安沉船有著相當(dāng)深入的研究。對新安沉船是條從福州或溫州出發(fā)的走私船的說法,他完全不認(rèn)同。他的觀點(diǎn)是,新安沉船是從寧波出發(fā)的官方貿(mào)易船,而船上的海商團(tuán)隊也許是在寧波的福建人。
“水銀”認(rèn)為,新安沉船出水有4只銅權(quán),其中一只一面鑄有陽文“慶元”,另一面則鑄有“庚申年”三字。距1323年開航年最近的“庚申年”為1320年,再前一個為1260年,南宋景定元年,那時寧波還叫明州,要再過35年,明州才升為“慶元府”。所以,銅權(quán)上的“慶元”“庚申年”只能是1320年的庚申年,元延祐七年。也就是說,這個銅權(quán)鑄于元代“禁人下蕃”(限制平民海外貿(mào)易)期間(延祐元年至至治三年,即1314-1323)的延祐七年(1320)?!般~權(quán)作為官器出現(xiàn)于新安沉船上,至少說明新安沉船在1320年就已經(jīng)是官本船,而不可能是私舶?!?/p>
船上的兩件落有“使司帥府公用”題款的龍泉窯青瓷碗也被很多學(xué)者提及。與船上裝載的兩萬多件瓷器不同,它不是外銷瓷,而是在船上使用的器物。2001年7月,同樣的底足圈內(nèi)刻有“使司帥府公用”題款的元龍泉窯青瓷碗殘器在寧波被發(fā)現(xiàn)。當(dāng)時的寧波市文物考古研究所在天一廣場區(qū)塊內(nèi)的元代市舶提舉司舊址進(jìn)行了考古發(fā)掘,在原碶閘街與咸塘街交界處工地,采集到這件器物?!笆顾編浉谩钡凝埲沙霈F(xiàn)在新安沉船內(nèi),也表明了新安沉船的官方貿(mào)易船身份。
至于新安沉船的國籍,中國與日韓的學(xué)者也存在著爭議。日本學(xué)者認(rèn)為,它是一條日本商船,主要依據(jù)是沉船中發(fā)現(xiàn)的大量木簡。由于木簡上標(biāo)有日本的寺名和人名,而木簡上書有“足”“奉加錢”“綱司”等漢字的日本用法。而“都綱”或“綱首”在日本被指是貿(mào)易船的船主以及交易的實際業(yè)務(wù)負(fù)責(zé)人和其管理下的商人集團(tuán)。航運(yùn)負(fù)責(zé)人被稱為“綱司”。由此,他們認(rèn)為,這證明了船主和貨主的日籍身份。
日本學(xué)者巖戶晶子甚至肯定地認(rèn)為,木簡上出現(xiàn)最多的是“東福寺”這一日本寺院名字,由此大致可以確定,新安船是為1319年遭遇火災(zāi)的東福寺籌集修復(fù)資金而派遣的貿(mào)易商船,于是也被叫作寺社造營料唐船。
從歷史的角度來看,這一時期之前,由于元前期與日本的關(guān)系緊張,元代的中日貿(mào)易出現(xiàn)了大量日本商船入元而甚少中國船(元船)赴日的一邊倒現(xiàn)象。這似乎也為新安沉船是一條日本商船提供了佐證。
而日本學(xué)者森平雅彥的觀點(diǎn)則跳出了沉船歸屬的爭論而別有一番見地。他研究后發(fā)現(xiàn),1250年至1350年這一百年間,日中貿(mào)易以華人海商為主要擔(dān)綱者?!爱?dāng)時中日貿(mào)易的港口博多甚至有華人海商的社區(qū),貿(mào)易船的海員也大多是中國人?!倍毡镜奈墨I(xiàn)曾記載,有一艘從日本啟航到達(dá)中國,且船員都是中國人的船,被認(rèn)為是日本船。
森平雅彥認(rèn)為,新安沉船很顯然是中國制造的帆船,但船上船員的生活器具既有中國人用的平底鍋、高麗制造的勺子,也有日本制造的木屐與象棋盤等生活用品,從中可以看出船員里可能混雜著中國人、高麗人和日本人。由此,他發(fā)出這樣的感慨:“這個應(yīng)該是跨國組成的(海商)團(tuán)隊吧,真的能夠單純說它是日本船或是元船(中國船)嗎?也許現(xiàn)代的國籍與船籍概念,在當(dāng)時是不成立的?!?h3>它為什么裝載這些貨物
銅錢、陶瓷器和紫檀木是新安沉船上裝載的最主要的三類貨物。而前兩者正是元代中日貿(mào)易最具代表性的貨物。
從新安沉船打撈上來的最多的遺物是銅錢,大概800萬枚,重28噸,分為42種品種、62種樣式。
寧波市考古研究所原負(fù)責(zé)人林士民早在上世紀(jì)90年代就對“宋代明州港銅錢外流日本”進(jìn)行了研究。當(dāng)時的日本,為什么會進(jìn)口中國的銅錢呢?這些銅錢作何用呢?林士民告訴筆者,學(xué)界主流的觀點(diǎn)是這些銅錢在那時當(dāng)作硬通貨在日本直接流通。
日本學(xué)者這樣認(rèn)為,由于日本平清盛時代熱衷于與宋的貿(mào)易,12世紀(jì)末13世紀(jì)初,流入日本的宋代銅錢取代了當(dāng)時日本的絹和布的實物貨幣,大量滲透進(jìn)日本的貨幣經(jīng)濟(jì)。13世紀(jì)后半期,日本莊園的年貢、雜稅、勞役等普遍使用代錢納,當(dāng)時日本各地沒有發(fā)行獨(dú)自的貨幣。支撐貨幣經(jīng)濟(jì)的是從中國大量輸入的銅錢,又稱“渡來錢”。而北宋發(fā)行的大量銅錢是主要來源。
“水銀”也從《元史》中扒梳出當(dāng)時中國官販銅錢的先例:“(至元)十九年(1282),又用耿左丞言,以鈔易銅錢,令市舶司以錢易海外金珠貨物?!薄八y”認(rèn)為,將28噸銅錢運(yùn)往日本,正是新安沉船所擔(dān)當(dāng)?shù)墓苫蚬俨睢?/p>
楊古城是寧波老資格的文保者,一直致力于中日文化交流,特別是寧波文化對日本影響的研究。在給筆者發(fā)來的《明州銅錢鑄成日本大佛》一文中,他作了一個大膽推測:中國“渡來錢”在日本的使用不止用作貨幣,還用于日本民俗的避邪,特別是熔鑄寺廟法器和官府神社供器、神像、神獸等。其中最著名的例子就是用中國銅錢鑄造了奈良大佛和鐮倉大佛。
對于新安沉船上的銅錢作為冶銅原料一說,韓國學(xué)者李浩官持有相同的觀點(diǎn)。這種推斷的依據(jù)是,新安沉船裝運(yùn)了相當(dāng)數(shù)量的錫鋌。而當(dāng)時貨物中裝載金屬原料,往往是“銅錫并存”。
新安沉船最初被發(fā)現(xiàn),是韓國漁民在海底打撈上6件完整的青瓷器。新安沉船上最有價值的是元代的一萬多件瓷器,這批瓷器不僅數(shù)量大,質(zhì)量也高,堪稱元瓷中的精品,保存狀況還非常完整。其中絕大多數(shù)是龍泉窯的青瓷。
在元代,中國的陶瓷器大量流入日本,這與日本茶文化的普及有關(guān)。日本學(xué)者森平雅彥認(rèn)為,1250年到1350年的這一百年中日交流,對日本而言是從文明輸入到文化輸入的階段。這里的“文化”是指有限地區(qū)人所有的固有的習(xí)俗、思考、生活樣式、技術(shù)等,包括各種日常用品、飲食文化、民間習(xí)俗、當(dāng)?shù)匦叛觥?/p>
森平雅彥甚至認(rèn)為,被后世人稱作日本“傳統(tǒng)文化”的茶、水墨畫等等,就是這個時期通過與中國的海域交流而傳入的各式各樣的要素。而且,這是在貿(mào)易船往來的江南,尤其是以沿海的浙江地方為中心展開的“文化”。由此看來,寧波被日本奈良稱為“圣地寧波”,毫不為過。
不是中國出產(chǎn)的紫檀木在新安沉船上的出現(xiàn),似乎令人驚奇。雖然在當(dāng)時日本人眼里,紫檀木也是三種“唐木”之一。這種用于制作工藝品和建筑材料的木材,生長于印度。在新安沉船上,紫檀木有上千根之多,大多數(shù)直徑40厘米左右,長2米左右,它們是還帶樹皮的原木,上面有阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字做記號。
但“水銀”根據(jù)這些木頭的外觀紋理以及沒有顯現(xiàn)“十檀九空”的特點(diǎn)分析,認(rèn)為它們并非紫檀,而可能是用來提取香料或刻制佛像的花梨木之類?!暗鼈兣c新安沉船里發(fā)現(xiàn)的胡椒、香木一樣來自南洋,則是可以肯定的?!?h3>它印證了慶元港怎樣的景象
從新安沉船透露的歷史信息來看,當(dāng)時的慶元是一個繁榮興盛的國際化港埠城市。特別是在對日貿(mào)易上,它的地位可謂舉足輕重。其中的原因涉及宋以來中國海外貿(mào)易的市舶司制度和元代與日本的關(guān)系。
元代的慶元與廣州、泉州一起并列為“三司”,凡是去高麗、日本的商舶都由慶元府的市舶司簽證才能出洋。
新安沉船所處的歷史時期是在經(jīng)歷了元對日兩次戰(zhàn)爭之后的三四十年間。此時元朝的版圖擴(kuò)大到歐亞大陸,呈現(xiàn)出廣泛的貿(mào)易圈,東亞海上貿(mào)易也已適當(dāng)?shù)剡M(jìn)行了開放,但對前來貿(mào)易的日本商人還是有所防范。
在這封閉與開放之間,慶元作為元近乎唯一壟斷的對外開放貿(mào)易港口,其重要作用自然凸顯,慶元成為國際性港口城市也是理所當(dāng)然。
當(dāng)時中國與日本之間的貿(mào)易港,在中國是慶元,在日本是博多。“所有商船都來往于這兩港之間?!比毡緦W(xué)者木宮泰彥研究后認(rèn)為,當(dāng)時,從慶元輸往日本的貨物主要是銅錢、香藥、瓷器、經(jīng)卷、書籍、文具、唐畫、什器及各種織物。
《至正四明續(xù)志》也記載,當(dāng)時慶元從世界各地進(jìn)口貨物主要分為兩大類,如貴重珍寶和金屬,稱之為“細(xì)色”,而一般性的商品如普通的藥材、香料、布匹、礦物、木材等稱之為“粗色”。
透過史料記載和日本學(xué)者的結(jié)論,不難看出,當(dāng)時輸入慶元的大多為資源型貨物,而輸出的都是高附加值的產(chǎn)品,特別是各類瓷器。慶元港在當(dāng)時的對日貿(mào)易中,應(yīng)是大宗國際貨物的集散地,而且以輸出為主。
先進(jìn)的海運(yùn)技術(shù)與國際化海商團(tuán)隊的存在,也使慶元位列當(dāng)時國際一流港口城市的行列。新安沉船上裝載的貨物之所以能在海水中歷經(jīng)600余年而保存得如此完整,一個原因就是它采取了當(dāng)時先進(jìn)的“集裝箱技術(shù)”。韓國學(xué)者尹炳武考證后認(rèn)為,(新安沉船)從慶元裝船的貨物都是便于搬運(yùn)的木箱和木桶裝運(yùn)的。“這種木箱并不是一次使用的,多數(shù)都有反復(fù)使用磨損的痕跡,為了便于貨主識別自己的貨物,每只木箱上還有用毛筆書寫的漢字和編碼……而且木箱都是和船艙隔板平行而有序地擺放的?!?/p>
除大宗物品外,新安沉船上還有很多個性化的小眾物品,如南宋官窯、高麗的青瓷花瓶以及玉毫建盞、銅鏡銀器、字畫塑像等士人雅物。這些物品在慶元市場上應(yīng)該都可以找到。所謂“鯨波萬里如履坦途,雜貨瑰寶日陳于庭”,這種港城國際貿(mào)易盛況下的豪邁大氣,在當(dāng)時的寧波,應(yīng)不是虛妄之言吧!
I saw the legendary shipwreck of the Xinan cargo ship for the first time in my life at a major exhibition at the National Museum of Republic of Korea last summer. The scale and diversity of the exhibits, which included containers filled to the brim with Longquan celadon pieces, Chinese copper coins and countless handiworks and spices, opened my eyes. The exhibition brought the sealed secrets well-kept for more than 600 years in the "time capsule" under the spotlight of the worlds archeological frontline. The salvage operation on the shipwreck started by the archeological community of ROK in 1976 added a splendid collection of national treasures to the countrys cultural trove.
The historical connection between the shipwreck and what was then called Qingyuan Port (todays Ningbo Port in eastern Zhejiang) needs no elaboration. The exhibition also displayed a lot of items loaned from Zhejiang Museum in Hangzhou and Tian Yi Ge Museum in Ningbo to illustrate the bustling trade and cultural communications between China and Japan back then.
It is an archeological unanimity that the cargo ship sank into the sea near Mokpo, located at the southwestern tip of the Korean Peninsula, during its voyage from Qingyuan Port to Hakata, one of the oldest cities in Japan. In the Middle Ages, Hakata, which faces onto the Genkai-Nada Channel dividing Japan from Korea, was a base for merchants who traded with China and Korea.
However, there are many questions that remain unanswered. There are different opinions about the ship and the cargo it carried.
A dispute has long been centered on the ships identity – whether it was a government trade vessel or privately-run; and the possibility of the ship being a smuggler has not been ruled out. There are many other questions waiting to be clarified: Some archeologists wonder whether the ship was Japanese or Chinese and whether it really set off at Qingyuan Port.
The mainstream opinion, based on the wooden slips found from the shipwreck that indicate cargo details, has been that the ships last voyage in 1323 started from Qingyuan Port. Since the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the port had been serving as a natural shortcut connecting Ningbo in China and Hakata in Japan. The voyage normally took only 7-8 days to complete.
Some experts, represented by famous boat historian Xi Feilong, maintain that the ship set off in Fuzhou or Wenzhou, reasoning that the ship was manifestly crafted in Fujian Province and that the route on the Min River in Fujian was favored by traders for porcelain transport. His opinion has been echoed by scholars who raise the tax evasion intention of the ship and point out that the tax bureau of the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) was headquartered in Quanzhou, Fujian Province. If the inference holds water, there are reasons to consider the possibility that the ship was a smuggler.
There has been a long-time dispute between Chinese scholars and their Japanese and Korean counterparts about the nationality of the sunken ship. Japanese scholars maintain that the Japanese names of temples and people inscribed on the wooden slips, together with the Japanese usage of Chinese characters, are convincing evidence of the ships Japanese identity. One of the scholars even firmly believes that the ‘Tofukuji Temple frequently mentioned on the wooden slips suggests the voyage was intended for raising a fund to rebuild the temple in the wake of a major fire disaster in 1319.
From a broader historical perspective, the China-Japan trade deficit caused mainly by the diplomatic tension between the Yuan government and Japan in the earlier stages of the dynasty appears to be quite assertive evidence that “Xinan” was more likely to be a Japanese merchant ship.
Such reasoning is disapproved by Japanese scholar Morihira Masahiko. His argument is based on his findings that Chinese marine merchants played a leading role in the China-Japan maritime trade in the period from 1250 to 1350 and that many trade vessels setting off in Japan and heading for China were mistakenly identified as Japanese. He insists that there is no doubt the ship was ‘made in China and the crew was quite a mix of Chinese, Japanese and Koreans, as suggested by the articles of daily life found from the shipwreck.
The cargo items of “Xinan” fall mainly into three categories: copper coins, porcelain articles, and rosewood, the first two being the main trading commodities between China and Japan in the Yuan times. According to Lin Shimin, former director of Ningbo Archeological Research Institute, the coins import from China suggest the Chinese coins were used as hard currency in Japan at that time.
The Yuan Dynasty of China saw the intensification of China-Japan trade and cultural communication. Yang Gucheng, a Ningbo native and avid researcher of the influence of Ningbos regional culture on Japan, contributed a fresh idea that the copper coins were also used by the Japanese people, especially at temples and government shrines, to avoid evil spirits.