楊 紅
(哈爾濱工程大學,哈爾濱 150001)
“元語篇”指語篇的“第二層面”,區(qū)別于“基本話語層”(Sinclair 1981)?!盎驹捳Z層”包括命題內(nèi)容或者“語篇的交流內(nèi)容”(Hyland 2005:38),為讀者提供信息。第二層面也就是元語篇,包括語篇的非命題部分,指引讀者閱讀語篇,在作者和讀者之間發(fā)揮橋梁作用。因此,區(qū)分基本話語層(命題內(nèi)容)與語篇第二層面(非命題部分)是元話語研究的核心問題。但以往研究并沒有明確區(qū)分這些模糊概念,且在命題與非命題之間存在大量術語重疊現(xiàn)象,這給篇章分析造成困難,并使該領域的研究缺乏統(tǒng)一性。因而,為保障篇章分析方法的連貫性,對承載元語篇的非命題術語的類型加以澄清十分必要。其中,對模糊限定語(hedges)和情態(tài)(modals)的研究及定位是解決目前問題的關鍵。本文嘗試運用功能和句法相關理論研究“模糊限定語”和“情態(tài)”,突出標記人際元語篇元素。
本文的語料取自美國《紐約時報》、《華盛頓郵報》、《時代周刊》和英國《泰晤士報》 、《經(jīng)濟學家》、《旁觀者》2014年2月至3月中的社論。社論是新聞評論的一種,是針對國內(nèi)外重大新聞事實和時政進行權威評論以及引導輿論的工具。它本身具有大眾性、論辯性和說服性。報刊的大眾性特點表明其擁有最廣泛的受眾群體;說服性特點要求其文本結構必須清晰,以便在作者與讀者之間建立良好聯(lián)系;論辯性的寫作使作者傾向于使用較多元語言,尤其是人際元語言(Williams 1981)。
模糊限定語由Lakoff(1973)提出,指那些使事物變得模糊或不太模糊的詞語。Hyland指出,“模糊限定語指那些表明對命題的真值缺乏充分承諾或不絕對表達承諾的語言方式” (Hyland 2008:52)。但在元語篇研究中,模糊限定語與人際相關(Crismore 1989,Vande 2002,Milne 2003,Hyland 2005)。
Milne和Hyland從交際角度研究模糊限定語:“作者對一條信息的態(tài)度可以是確定的或不確定的”(Milne 2008:107),表達不確定的情態(tài)標記語是“模糊限定語”,表達確定的標記語叫做“確定標記語”(certainty markers)(Milne 2008:99)或者“強效輔助詞”(boosters)(Hyland 2008:52-53)。Hyland認為,有必要使用模糊限定語證明作者話語的合理性,因為作者需要得到讀者的認可;作者必須對事實的本質(zhì)作出假設,預測讀者對該假設的接受程度(Hyland 1996:436-437)。因此,“讀者不知道誰將對話語的真實性負責,在這一方面模糊限定語為處理文本提供可能”(Markkanen & Schroder 1997:5-6)。
Halliday和Matthiessen(2004)認為“情態(tài)”是人際功能的組成部分,并將其定義為“肯定”到“否定”的漸變體。換句話說,情態(tài)是命題(“是”或“不是”)發(fā)生的概率程度或者提議(“做!”或“不做!”)所承載的義務程度(Halliday & Matthiessen 2004:116),所以歸一度(the certaint yends)的肯定一端和否定一端也是情態(tài)的一部分。本文中表示肯定和否定的任何一端都是命題的,無法承載元語篇。Halliday和Matthiessen認為,情態(tài)系統(tǒng)的功能是“解釋肯定和否定之間不確定的過渡狀態(tài)”(Halliday & Matthiessen 2004:147)。他們區(qū)分“情態(tài)”(modalization)和“意態(tài)”(modulation)。此處的情態(tài)不僅與概率有關(如probably,certainly,possibly),還與頻率相關(如sometimes,usually,always)。情態(tài)的表達方式可以是情態(tài)助動詞(如thatwillbe John,he’llsit there all day)、情態(tài)附加語(如that’sprobablyJohn)或者是二者結合(如that’llprobablybe John)。而意態(tài)與義務和意愿有關,其表達方式可以是情態(tài)助動詞(如youshouldknow that,I’ll help them)或者擴充的謂語(如you’resupposedtoknow that)(Halliday & Matthiessen 2004:147)。
除了情態(tài)動詞和情態(tài)附加語,Halliday (2000)提出“情態(tài)隱喻”概念,從一個新的視角闡釋語言形式和語義之間的關系,拓寬情態(tài)范疇。因此諸如I think,I’m certain,it’s likely,it’s certain,it’s obvious that...和everyone admits that...等都是情態(tài)表達方式。
根據(jù)功能語法,人際意義的體現(xiàn)由情態(tài)的取向系統(tǒng)決定并將其劃分為具有顯性變體、隱性變體的主觀性情態(tài)(subjective modality)和客觀性情態(tài)(objective modality)(Halliday & Matthiessen 2004:619)。Halliday曾明確指出,“顯性主觀情態(tài)和顯性客觀情態(tài)都是隱喻式的,與其對應的隱性主觀和隱性客觀情態(tài)都是一致式。隱喻式以投射句形式編碼要表達的主客觀情態(tài),把命題識解成被投射的內(nèi)容;而一致式將可能性的表達編碼成某一情態(tài)成分”(Halliday 2000:615)。以上4種顯隱性情態(tài)標記可以不同程度地公開標記話語者對所述信息的態(tài)度、評價以及對此承擔的責任(Thompson 2008:71),因此是非命題的,被視為人際元語篇標記。
社論文體在結構、風格、內(nèi)容以及受眾等方面存在特殊性,其最根本的交際目的是通過對事件的評論達到影響受眾觀點的目的。要作到這一點,就需要在語言運用上具有說服力,實現(xiàn)它的“社交功能”(Cheung 2010)。人際元語篇標記將把社論作者對時事評論的重要性及可信性信息傳遞給讀者,以實現(xiàn)人際社交功能。以往對人際元語篇標記的分類很難全面應用于英語社論文體對人際意義的解釋,因此本文有必要對其進行重新整合與分類。
英語社論中人際元語篇標記分為以下類型:(1)模糊限定語語氣副詞標記語:其性質(zhì)為弱語氣的副詞,如She does a good job communicating a complicated (and appropria-te) mix of policy decisions at her first FOMC meeting today, including aslightlylarger and quicker than expected interest rate hike…(Time, 20 March 2014);(2)模糊限定語動詞標記語:表達不確定性和遲疑態(tài)度的動詞,如Itseemsthat strikes and multiyear pressure campaigns by low-wage workers have some impact on their employers(TheWashingtonPost, 20 March 2014);(3)模糊限定語頻率和態(tài)度標記語:表頻率和態(tài)度的形容詞或副詞(形式上與主句分離),如Sureenough, Mr Najib had momentous news, that the authorities now blame “deliberate” action for whatever happened to Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370, now missing for more than a week(Economist,16 March 2014);(4)認知情態(tài)標記語:表(不)確定性情態(tài)動詞、情態(tài)副詞和關系小句,如Tinkering with taxes every few monthsmayplay to the crowd but it’s a disaster for business and prosperity(TheTimes, 19 March 2014);(5)責任情態(tài)標記語:表義務或允許的情態(tài)詞或動詞被動式,如The EU foreign ministers declared the ballot to be illegal and added, lest anyonebetemptedtoaccept the Russianfaitaccompli: “The EU does not recognize the illegal ‘referendum’ and its outcome”(Economist,17 March 2014);(6)顯性情態(tài)標記語:小句式或嵌入式名詞詞組,如ItisespeciallywelcomethatFlorida State Attorney Jeffrey L. Ashton is conducting a parallel inquiry that may serve to ba-lance that of the FBI(TheWashingtonPost, 10 March 2014);(7)隱性情態(tài)標記語:限定性情態(tài)動詞、情態(tài)副詞或動詞被動式,如Promoting regional integration is likewise something policy makers often talk about andundoubtedlysupport(NewYorkTimes,6 February 2014)。
在元語篇研究中,模糊限定語往往被“不確定標記語”(uncertainty markers)取代。這些標記語往往表示低等級(low grading)(Martin & Rose 2003)。比如,somewhat,kind of,sort of,just,merely,rather,slightly,relatively. 這些詞的作用都是“將音量調(diào)低”并“軟化”語氣(Mar-tin & Rose 2003)。它們在社論文體中扮演人際元語篇指示語的角色。例如:
① a. ...some indicated that Mr. Todashev had a knife or a sword, others that hemerelyknocked over a table — have been more than enough to fuel reasonable suspicions, let alone the multiple conspiracy theories reverberating globally via the Internet. (TheWashingtonPost, 20 March 2014)
模糊限定語包含大量表達式,如predict,credibly,reason,probable,possible,likely等。但本文研究的焦點是表達不確定性的非命題指示語,即人際元語篇標記語,因此有必要區(qū)分模糊限定語動詞的命題意義和非命題意義。有些動詞如hypothesize,judge,imagine,infer,wish,即使表明作者不確定的態(tài)度,也增加信息內(nèi)容,它們是命題的。例如:
② Instead of condemning him for this outrageous act, however, some think it is more important to blame President Obama for this tragedy. (Time, 20 March 2014)
上例中think不是元語篇的載體,因為該詞表達命題內(nèi)容,并沒有暗示或傳達作者的聲音。然而,模糊限定語動詞卻能暗示作者不確定和遲疑的態(tài)度,表達非命題內(nèi)容,因此成為人際元語篇的載體。例如:
③ While Mr. Putinappearsto hold all the aces, this is his Achilles heel — Russia is now part of the global economy and will pay if market volatility and rouble weakness persist indefinitely. (NewYorkTimes, 5 March 2014)
例③中,作者使用appears暗示事件的當事者俄羅斯總統(tǒng)普京在解決烏克蘭問題中所處的地位以及面臨的嚴峻形勢。同時,此類模糊限定語人際意義標記語能夠表明社論作者對信息內(nèi)容的不確定態(tài)度。
通常,表頻率或態(tài)度類的形容詞及副詞(模糊限定語表達方式的一種)不納入我們研究的范圍,因為像occasionally,seldom,usually,frequently,scarcely,obviously, apparently,crucially,undoubtedly,sure一類形容詞及副詞由于其本質(zhì)上是命題的,因此不能算元語篇標記語。但是,如果這些詞脫離主句而獨立出現(xiàn)在句首,其后緊跟逗號或者出現(xiàn)在句中但位于兩逗號之間,它們就是非命題的,此時被視為承載元話語標記語。例如:
④ a. It is with this latter group of good-faith critics in mind that the Obama administration must approach the troubling matter of Ibragim Todashev’s violent death at the hands,apparently, of an FBI special agent on May 22.(TheWa-shingtonPost, 10 March 2014)
至于情態(tài)類型,大體上可分為認知(epistemic)情態(tài)和責任(deontic)情態(tài)。當“說話者公開承擔責任,證明自身話語屬實”(Lyons 1977:797)時,為認知情態(tài)。目前,相關研究都將“認知情態(tài)”或Halliday & Matthiessen(2004)所謂的“情態(tài)”視為表達“確定或不確定”的重要因素,這種“(不)確定性”表明所說話語的可能性及概率,承擔部分或避免承擔全部話語真實性的責任,可以通過情態(tài)操作詞(modal operators)(如will,should,would,could,can,must)或情態(tài)狀語(如probably,usually,possibly,certainly,supposedly,presumably,sometimes,always)以及關系小句實現(xiàn)。例如:
⑤ a.(8) Tinkering with taxes every few monthsmayplay to the crowd but it’s a disaster for business and prosperity.(TheTimes, 19 March 2014)
b.(9) It isprobablysafe to say that journalists, outside a small but dedicated cadre of labor reporters, have talked to more minimum-wage workers in the past year than in the previous 10.(TheWashingtonPost, 20 March 2014)
例⑤a的作者使用認知情態(tài)動詞 may表明其對最近英國稅收法案不斷修補這事實的態(tài)度,并非增強命題的信息本身,因此屬于元話語標記。例⑤b包含可能性情態(tài)狀語的關系小句it isprobablysafe to say,屬認知型情態(tài)表達。它除表明作者態(tài)度的不確定外,還考慮到語用上的得體和距離等禮貌因素。
責任情態(tài)或Halliday & Matthiessen的“意態(tài)”常常從“讀者話語表達式”和“義務表達式”兩個角度著眼,表達義務和允許意義。作者試圖利用“讀者話語表達式”讓讀者參與到話題討論中,而“義務表達式” 表明作者對所討論話題的態(tài)度。其人際意義的實現(xiàn)形式包括情態(tài)操作詞(如must,should,may)以及謂詞的擴展(如be allowed to,be supposed to,be expected to,be acceptable),因為它們在人際元語篇中可以表明提議被要求、提供、建議或決定,暗示作者是否期待某行為或事件發(fā)生的態(tài)度,因此成為人際元語篇標記。例如:
⑥ The EU foreign ministers declared the ballot to be illegal and added, lest anyonebetemptedtoaccept the Russianfaitaccompli: “The EU does not recognize the illegal ‘referendum’ and its outcome.”(Economist,17 March 2014)
須要指出,根據(jù)文本中的不同功能,情態(tài)可以成為表達“確定”、“不確定”或“義務”的手段。如情態(tài)詞must在某些實例中用來表達確定,而在另一些例子中表達義務;should可以表達認知上的不確定,也可以表明義務含義。例如:
⑦ a. Instead, we have an ill-defined feeling that weshoulddo something for those worse off than ourselves, something that often turns into a pity-charity complex.(TheWashingtonPost, 20 March 2014)
b. Ensuring the competition authorities are indepen-dent, competent and energeticshouldhelp to ensure more competition.(NewYorkTimes, 6 February 2014)
c. But this is just another way that the poormustprove themselves “deserving” and for the better-off to feel righteous for helping them.(TheWashingtonPost, 20 March 2014)
d. He stopped short of calling this a hijacking, but experts now agree that this is whatmusthave happened.(Eco-nomist, 16 March 2014)
在例⑦d中,負責調(diào)查MH370失聯(lián)客機的專家稱此次事件為劫機事件。作者在傳達這一信息時用情態(tài)詞must表達認知上的確定態(tài)度。b中的should表達概率或可能性,屬于認知情態(tài)標記語。a和c中的情態(tài)詞 should和must都表達必要性,是義務意義表達式,屬于責任情態(tài)標記語。
顯性情態(tài)標記主要由小句和嵌入式名詞詞組體現(xiàn),隱性情態(tài)標記主要由限定性情態(tài)動詞、情態(tài)副詞或動詞被動式體現(xiàn)。
由于顯性情態(tài)標記及隱性情態(tài)標記是作者勸說讀者接受其觀點的重要工具,在英語社論文體中常常使用這兩種標記語來撰寫具有說服力的文章。它們有助于更為精確地區(qū)分語篇的人際特征。例如:
⑧ a.ItisespeciallywelcomethatFlorida State Attorney Jeffrey L. Ashton is conducting a parallel inquiry that may serve to balance that of the FBI.(TheWashingtonPost, 10 March 2014)
b. Then,there’sthe supposedly “hawkish” rate increase (the median interest rate forecast increased 0.25 % to 1 %) which investors now believe could happen by mid 2015 based on a statement by the chair...(Time, 20 March 2014)
c.SeniorU.S.officialssaid they were holding off on sanctions that might genuinely cause the Kremlin pain, such as asset freezes, and keeping them in reserve in the event of a Russian invasion of eastern Ukraine.(TheWashingtonPost, 20 March 2014)
例⑧a中,以it開頭的關系小句反應社論作者對于佛羅里達州Jeffrey 律師介入事件調(diào)查的積極態(tài)度,采用非命題的客觀表達式,屬于顯性人際情態(tài)標記。同時,b中there be形式小句以及c中以泛指第三方Senior U.S.officials開頭的小句同樣具備顯性情態(tài)特征。以上3種顯性客觀標記語能清楚反映出命題的人際情態(tài)地位、等級以及反應類型。社論作者往往利用這種客觀性較強的人際元話語手段淡化自己的觀點,為某一個看法增添客觀確定性。
⑨ Weexpectedsomething technical focusingon the new powers the Scottish Parliament would be gifted by a Labour government at Westminster.(TheSpectator, 18 March 2014)
區(qū)別于客觀性較強的顯性情態(tài)標記,⑨中的人際情態(tài)標記語we expected具有主觀情態(tài)取向,突出話語者對蘇格蘭議會真正解決貧富差距問題的期待。
⑩Thefactthatit was issued, he said, was a sign of that Germany was “waking up”.(Economist17 March 2014)
例⑩中,The fact that與其后的it was issued構成嵌入式名詞詞組,具備顯性情態(tài)特征,成為詞組型人際元話語標記語。該新聞評論者利用此結構將命題信息的有效性歸屬于他人或他物,使自己與之保持一定距離,從而在一定程度上開辟與潛在聽眾的人際交流空間。
b.Still, even EU hawks recognised that the EU has come up with a sterner response than many expected, even though it has declined for now to target members of the Russian executive.(Economist, 17 March 2014)
c. Promoting regional integration is likewise something policy makers often talk about andundoubtedlysupport.(NewYorkTimes,6 February 2014)
模糊限定語中表弱化語氣的副詞、表達不確定性和遲疑態(tài)度的動詞以及形式上與主句分離的表頻率和態(tài)度的形容詞和副詞都是非命題的,承載元語篇并傳達命題的人際意義。認知與責任情態(tài)以及顯隱性情態(tài)能成為人際元語篇標記語的關鍵在于它們以情態(tài)詞或關系小句的方式將元話語的歸屬意義與命題的人際意義結合起來,傳達社論作者或其所屬政治集團對新聞事件的看法、態(tài)度和立場。
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