A View on English Politeness from a Cultural Perspective

◆Lu Xiaofang

(The Foreign Language Department of Chongqing Medical University)

A View on English Politeness from a Cultural Perspective

◆Lu Xiaofang

(The Foreign Language Department of Chongqing Medical University)

Politeness plays an important role in human communication.As a socio－pragmatic phenomenon，its actual manifestations and standards for judgment are culturally different due to the influence of cultural value orientations.This paper analyzes the characteristics of English politeness from a cultural perspective.It aims to improve our understanding of English politeness and cross－ cultural awareness.

English politeness English culture individualism low power distance

I Introduction

What is politeness?Different linguists and scholars give their different interpretations of politeness.Leech(1983:82)sees politeness as a regulative factor in interaction in order to maintain"the social equilibrium and the friendly relation".Brown and Levinson(1987)view politeness as a redressive action taken to counter－balance the disruptive effect of face－threatening acts.Yule maintains that politeness is"a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange"(2000:106).This discussion shows their differences in defining politeness.So we can see it is not easy to give a satisfactory definition of politeness.On the whole，Western linguists tend to consider politeness as a means of avoiding offenses and maintaining social distance as well as social lubricant of reducing interpersonal friction，which plays a significant role in interpersonal relationship and interaction.In this paper，the writer purports to analyze the characteristics of English politeness and give its cultural interpretation.

II English Cultural Orientations

Here we use two major cultural dimensions to deal with the issue:individualism－collectivism(IC)and small－large power distance(PD)，which are proposed by Hofstede to explain differences and similarities in communication across cultures.According to Hofstede(1991)，IC is"the extent to which one＇s self－ identity is defined by individual characteristics or by the group＇s characteristics to which the individual belongs and the extent to which individual or group interests dominate";PD refers to"the extent that power differences are accepted and sanctioned in a society"(Thomas 2002:50).

According to Gudykunst and Ting－Toomey(1988)，English culture belongs to individualistic culture and has low scores on Hofstedde＇s power distance dimension(Hu 1999:102).That is to say，English culture is mainly oriented toward individualism and low power distance.

2.1 Individualism

Individualism is deeply rooted in English culture and is highly valued by English people.The term"individualism"is referred to as a cultural pattern consisting of loosely linked individuals，who conceive of themselves essentially as independent of collectives and who give precedence to their personal goals over others(Gudykunst＆ Mody 2002:144).According to Samovar and Porter(1995:85)，in its broad sense，"individualism"is the doctrine that an individual＇s interests are/ought to be paramount，and that all values，rights and duties originate in individuals.Similarly，F(xiàn)ieg holds that this term involves self－ concept，the idea that the self is an individual unit whose behavior is aimed at individual goals as opposed to a member of a group whose behavior is aimed at smooth interpersonal relations(Smith＆ Louise 1979:28).It is quite an elaborate notion，which encompasses the freedom，right and the independence of action of man(He 1995:7).In this sense，it is hard to give a satisfactory translation in Chinese for this term since in Chinese environment，the term is quite often associated with egoism，hedonism and selfishness，opposite to Chinese cultural values and hence is attributed to a derogatory sense by the Chinese，whereas it is a dominant value orientation of English culture and is deeply rooted in the mind of its people.

The most salient characteristics of individualism in English culture are"I"consciousness and self－ orientation(Hu 1999:352).According to Hofstede，English people lay importance on individual identity，rights and needs.They subordinate the group goals to their personal goals.Their loyalty to a given group is very weak，so much so that they make no distinction between in－groups and out－groups in interactions(Gudykunst＆ Mody 2002:27).The core building block of individualism is the collective unconscious of"autonomous self".Put differently，English people construe themselves as an independent entity，valuing their"internal abilities，thoughts and feelings，realizing internal attributes，being unique，direct and expressing the self"(Hu 1999:525).Thus，they uphold the individual＇s initiative，independence and freedom of action，and encourage competition along with personal achievement.Besides，English people are selforiented:they strive for their own goals and make use of interactions to promote or realize them;they highly value self－autonomy，self－ reliance and self－realization(God helps those who help themselves);to extend the self，they stress directness，preciseness and self－exposure in conversation，which are perceived as the effective communication strategies(Hu 1999:511，517).

2.2 Low Power Distance

Moreover，English culture belongs to low power distance culture.As Thomas(2002:65)says，all individualistic cultures tend to be horizontal and horizontalness reinforces individualism.In Hofstede＇s words，equal or horizontal relationship is treasured by English people:they make efforts to diminish status and distribute power evenly by language use;they strive for equality，evenness and absence of hierarchy in interpersonal relationships(Gudykunst＆Mody 2002:144).And therefore what is advocated is symmetrical relationships and"thus the slogan:everybody is born equal－democracy，liberation of the individual is everybody＇s wish" ."This symmetry presupposes role equality rather than differentiation".People＇s obligations and responsibility are contractual in nature(Hu 1999:509).Thus，equality overrides power in English culture.

Individualism and low power distance，the two dominant orientations in English culture have to do with the Western religion and philosophy.According to Jia(2002:63)，what is advocated by Christianity in the West is the individual and thus for the sake of the individual，the group can be sacrificed.Individualism is assumed to originate from the fifteenth Renaissance，which also stresses the individual and stands for the individual＇s freedom and emancipation.The concept of individualism manifests itself fully in the tradition of philosophy，represented by John Locke，an English philosopher，who contends that the individual is the basic unit of nature.In addition，the Western society has long been contract－based or equality－oriented(Jia 2002:164－165).That is，the Western social structure is basically horizontal.And thus what is highly regarded is humanitarianism and human rights."The love and benevolence advocated by hu-manitarianism is not selective or asymmetrical but symmetrical in nature"，which helps reinforce the equal or horizontal relationships(Hu 1999:509).

The two cultural dimensions have both a direct and an indirect effect on communicational behaviors of members of English culture and thus influence the way English people show politeness when handling interpersonal relationships.The following will examine the history of the English notion of politeness，which will help understand what English politeness is.

III The Origin of Politeness in English Culture

As a social pragmatic phenomenon，politeness means proper social conduct and tactful consideration for others via the use of language，demonstrating status，manners，or breeding of communicators in interactions.What counts as polite in any given context is socio－culturally and historically determined.Politeness is not something which human beings are born with，but something which is acquired through a process of socialization.In this sense，politeness is not a"natural"phenomenon，"which existed before mankind，but one that has been socio－culturally and historically constructed"(Reiter 2000:1).This is similar to Ehlich＇s argument that politeness phenomenon is not a natural entity，but one which has evolved historically and has been constructed historically(Song 2000:21).Therefore，the history of politeness，its evolution and development are an integral part of"politeness"itself.Any study of politeness in a given speech community must evoke such historical connections.

As far as English politeness is concerned，it has arisen and evolved under the changing historical conditions.The evolution of this concept can readily find reflection in the English language，especially in its lexis，such as"courteous"，"urbane"and"civil"，which are all the words synonymous with politeness.The English term"polite"should date back to the fifteenth century and etymologically derives from the Latin word"politus"，the past participle of"polire"，meaning"to smooth"."Polite"，thus，originally meant"smoothed"，"polished"and subsequently"refined"，"cultivated"，"well－ bred"，etc.when referring to people，and"courteous"，"urbane"and，so on，when referring to manners as in the seventeenth century，a polite person was defined as a man"of refined courteous manners"(The Oxford Dictionary of Etymology)(Sifianou 1992:81).Although the term does not provide us with any direct clues about its historical connections，its definition associates it with the norms of the social conduct of the upper classes.The lexical relatedness between politeness on the one hand and court and city on the other is only too clear and such semantic association of"polite"with behaviors of the upper classes is mirrored not uniquely in the English language but also in certain other European languages，mainly including Spanish，F(xiàn)rench，and German，whose equivalents of"polite"are"cortes"，"courtois"and"h flich"respectively(Mey1998:677).In particular，the German term"h flichkeit"(h f referring to court)，meaning the locus of its genesis，is"a living reminder of the conditions that gave rise to it"，and this word can"hardly be uttered without invoking those conditions".Another German word with reference to politeness is"urbanitas"(urbanity)，which was taken from Latin(He 1995:3).

In any case，the apparent lexical connection between"politeness"and"city"is quite clear in that"city"，"civil"and"civilization"all come from the same root"politus"，which clearly reflect the association between urbane life and polite，civilized manners.As Donaldson claims，"polished，mannerly，cultured，civilized life has come to be associated with the city".(Sifianon 1992:81－82)On the other hand，the etymological association of politeness with court sheds light on its historic connotation and leads us to look back at the court life in the Middle Ages，in which the behavior of the courtly knights with such courtesy values as loyalty and reciprocal trust was regarded as appropriate and polite，and became a respectable social behavioral model for the public to follow.During the Renaissance period，the upper classes were not only concerned with the cultivation of social manners but with a civilized society，in which the tactful consideration for others became crucially important in order to maintain and balance a social hierarchy，where social distance and reciprocal duties and obligations between people of unequal statuses needed to be decided(Reiter 2000:2).

To conclude，the etymology of politeness contributes to our understanding of its historical and current use.Politeness in English culture has been closely associated with the norms of social conduct.To be polite requires meeting the conventionalized norms of behavior and is aimed at maintaining"the equilibrium of interpersonal relationships within the social group"(Reiter 2000:2).

IV Features of English politeness

English culture is oriented to individualism and low power distance.Accordingly，English politeness exhibits individualistic features in many aspects，which essentially centers on self－valuing and other－respecting.Assertiveness captures its essence.

Since English culture stresses individual rights，freedom and independence，showing due respect to one＇s liberty，rights and independence is considered polite while disregarding them appears to an English speaker to be improper and even rude.English people value others as well as themselves and strive for equality in interpersonal relationships，which can well be echoed by assertiveness.According to Samovar and Porter(1995)，"assertiveness"refers to a social value，an attitude and a strategy taken to deal with interpersonal problems in the Englishspeaking world.It is based on two basic assumptions:(a)an individual is more likely to obtain what s/he desires by letting others know clearly what s/he thinks，feels and wants;(b)an individual is more likely to establish an air of cooperation rather than confrontation by respecting others＇rights，needs and priorities.In this light，individuals can assert themselves without putting others down or trampling on their own rights;they can stand up for themselves in ways which do not violate others＇rights;to assert oneself involves expressing one＇s ideas，feelings and needs directly，honestly and appropriately as well as respecting or valuing oneself and treating oneself with as much consideration and goodwill as any human being deserves(Gao 2002:23－24).

It is clear that the concept of assertiveness is first self－ favoring，which is predetermined by the cultural value of individualism in the English－speaking world.To act assertively and hence politely can help people find the balance，mediate their behavior to be less shy and more expressive but not be aggressive or hostile.Assertiveness thus is linked to"openness"，"honesty"as well as"responsibility"for one＇s action in that one must hold as high a regard for others＇as for his/her own.To conclude，through assertive behavior，individuals can achieve their goals"in a manner that is both personally satisfying and socially effective in avoiding or solving interpersonal problems，and thus develop reciprocal respect and maintain social equilibrium and good interpersonal relationships"(Gao 2002:24).

To fully understand the concept of politeness and its features in English culture，it is necessary to understand the basic rights voiced by English people in their daily interpersonal communication.Among these rights，the following are most fundamental:

(1)Individuals have the right to be treated with respect.They respect others as well as themselves and desire fairness in interpersonal relationships.To demean the other will demean oneself.

(2)Individuals are entitled to defend themselves when their rights are considered to be at danger.

(3)Individuals have the right to express their honest feelings and thoughts directly and properly and verbalize their needs because only when individuals openly share their ideas，personal relationships can become truly meaningful.

(Gao 2002:26)

In this view，we can assume that the key to developing a good understanding of English politeness is to realize these rights.And interpersonal communication among English speakers is characterized by other－respecting and self－valuing".That is，"you scratch my back and I＇ll scratch yours".Hence，interactions are carried on in an atmosphere of cooperation and mutual respect.But when un-avoidable conflicts arise，the self＇s needs，feelings and thoughts will take precedence over others＇because people have the right to establish their own priorities to defend themselves by expressing their honest thoughts and feelings directly and appropriately so that everyone might benefit.Therefore，"each communicator knows where the other party stands.This cooperative，assertive attitude is highly valued by the English－speaking people and is regarded as the most effective model in achieving mutual understanding and thus，real long－term politeness"(Gao 2002:27).Through proper assertiveness，people try to find a balance between altruism(being so concerned with others＇wants that one neglects his own wants)and egoism(being so concerned with his own needs that he neglects those of others);they attempt to solve interpersonal conflicts by way of an open discussion－no self－denying，or hidden bargains or intimidation.

V Conclusion

From the analysis above，we can see that politeness is not only a pragmatic phenomenon but also a socio－ cultural one.Politeness is defined，realized and judged according to the culture related.The study of English politeness from the cultural perspective deserves our special attention:politeness pervades human interactions and plays an important role in the face－to－face communication and cross－cultural communication becomes an inevitable occurrence with the arising of network industry and the consequent advent of a global contact.The cultural view on politeness in English will benefit our understanding of English politeness and will offer a more secure basis for cross－cultural comparisons and generalizations.It can contribute to eliminating misunderstandings to developing adequate communicative competence，and thereby to functioning more effectively and successfully in cross－ cultural encounters.

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