辯論言語的語用分析

【摘要】在政治演說中，爭取公眾有著重要的意義。辯說是爭取公眾的最有效手段之一。需要說服力，感染力，以理服人等作為支撐。禮貌得體，講清道理，回絕無理要求，創(chuàng)造幽默效果等為體現(xiàn)。本文以2010年 the Sky News leaders’debate 文本為例，運用言語行為理論，合作與禮貌原則以及關聯(lián)辯論等語用學理論來分析辯論言語，并運用到實際生活中。

【關鍵詞】辯論;言語行為理論;合作與禮貌原則;關聯(lián)辯論;語用策略

一、辯論的一般特征

1.辯論的本質

是指代表不同思想觀點的各方，彼此用一定的理由來說明自己的觀點是正確的，揭露對方的觀點是錯誤的一種語言交鋒的過程。辯論就是不同思想觀點間的語言交鋒。

競選論辯是競選者為謀求某一職位而與人發(fā)生的論辯。是競選者宣傳自己，打擊對手，爭取選民的好機會。

2.競選辯論的特點

(1)競爭性。直面交鋒，多者選一，最強者為勝。

(2)嚴肅性和使命性。競選辯論時要負一定責任的，提出自己一旦當選將要實施的藍圖，方略，表明自己的任期目標和相應的切實可行的措施。

(3)目的是為了征服觀眾。辯論者謀求職位必須獲得選民的同情和支持，塑造良好的自我形象。

3.說服性演說

影響:是指對人或事件進程所起的作用。可以使積極的或消極的，可以是人或非人的，故意的或無意的，道德的或不道德的。影響包括燈光線，音樂和畫面等情緒基調，也包括人的其他行為和表現(xiàn)。

打動:導致一種行為或信念的任何刺激和引誘作用。

說服:是一種變化過程，源自能分享的和形象化的思維活動。說服的效果表現(xiàn)在受者的思想和行為之間。

二、辯論言語行為

1.說服言語行為

現(xiàn)任的英國首相和工黨領導人Gordon Brown:

“This may have the feel of a TV popularity contest， but in truth， this is an election about Britain's future， a fight for your future， and for your jobs.”“If it's about the big decisions， if it's about judgment， it's delivering a better future for this country， I'm your man.”

自由黨領導人 Nick Clegg:

“I believe the way things are is not the way things have to be. You're going to be told tonight by these two that the only choice you can make is between two old parties who've been running things for years. I'm here to persuade you that there is an alternative.”“o don't let anyone tell you that the only choice is old politics. We can do something new; we can do something different this time. That's what I'm about; that's what the Liberal Democrats offer.”

區(qū)分的第一種言語類型由肯定的言語行為組成，簡稱為肯定句。說話人或作者用這種言語行為“肯定”某個命題。

GORDON BROWN:negotiating a global financial tax. That is the right thing to do.#8239;

第二種類型的言語行為由祈使句構成。借助于這種言語行為講話人或作者極力使聽眾或讀者實施某種行為或避免某種行為，例如，請求和禁止。

DAVID CAMERON:Whether it was moats， or whether it was politicians claiming on phantom mortgages， or whether it was kitchens and cake tins and the rest of it， don't anyone try and put themselves on a pedestal over this issue. Let's actually sort it out and clean it up and recognise we were all in this mess.#8239;

第三種類型的言語行為由承諾句組成。在這種言語行為中講話人或作者通過聽眾或讀者許諾實施或避免實施某種行為。

GORDON BROWN:What are we doing now? We're going to link pensions to earnings in 2012， so every pension will be linked to earnings and not just prices. Secondly， women， and you are one of them， who have not had the full state pension， we are making it possible for all women in future to have that full state pension. And thirdly， of course， we've got to deal with the poverty that people face as pensioners. That is why the pension credits， the winter fuel allowance， all these things have been introduced…. That's what I want to see and that's what I want to do.

第四種言語行為由感嘆句組成。在這種言語行為中，講話人或作者通過祝賀或感謝某人、表示惋惜等等而表達情感

GORDON BROWN:if you want to be fair， you don't give people an inheritance tax and then cut child tax credits for middle-class families， you don't cut the child trust fund， you don't cut the schools budget， you don't have a do-it-yourself society.

第五種言語行為由宣布句或聲明句組成。借助這種言語行為，例如，當會議主席說:“我宣布開會?！敝v話人造成某種特定事態(tài)的產生。

ADAM BOULTON:David， it's over to you now for a free debate.#8239;

2.禮貌原則的違背與遵循

根據語言的言外功能和言語活動中維持良好的人際關系這一社會目標之間的相互關系，Leech把言外行為分為四大類:1)競爭類 ，2)和諧類，3)合作類，4)沖突類。

GORDON BROWN:You know who these two guys remind me? They remind me of my two young boys squabbling at bath time. And the squabbling about...

NICK CLEGG:That's a good line in rehearsal.#8239;

ADAM BOULTON:I think we're past bath time now!#8239;

GORDON BROWN:Squabbling about whether to have referendums on the European Union. What we need is jobs， and growth， and economic recovery. We work with our partners to get that. The sooner Nick realised also we had to work with America and Europe to get economic growth in the future， the better. I'm afraid David is anti-European， Nick is anti-American， and both of them are out of touch with reality.#8239;

GORDON BROWN:David， David， you're running up the wrong line.

NICK CLEGG:I， unlike David Cameron and Gordon Brown， have been in there， have sought changes.

NICK CLEGG:I don't think it's right to do what both David Cameron and Gordon Brown want， which is now to commit， before we need to make a decision.

辯論話語在本質上是競爭性的，更要注意禮貌地使用語言。

DAVID CAMERON:I completely agree with Gordon Brown about the bravery of our forces.

禮貌原則是主要是針對第三者，即針對同為聽話人的評委、主持人和觀眾而言?！把哉邿o心，聽者有意?！币虼?，辯論對方都很重視第三者的存在，事實上，這種辯論最重要的就是表演給第三者看和聽，要力爭獲得第三者的青睞。因此，除了說話人要說切合自己身份地位的話，還要盡可能主動多說尊重第三者身份地位處境的話，產生禮貌話語的正效應。

3.辯論的信息控制

合作原則

(1)量的控制

辯者在辯論中，要想使自己的觀點和主張站住腳，并進一步去說服對立方辯者和受眾，必須有足夠的材料，引證足夠的事實，闡明足夠的道理，抒發(fā)足夠的感情，要有足夠的語義信息并將語義信息準確無誤地傳遞給對手和受眾，從而使其充分發(fā)揮語用信息的認識價值，交際價值和審美價值。辯論的失敗，或辯論雙方兩敗俱傷，或辯論雙方僵持不下暫時擱置辯題而不了了之，從信息理論角度來分析，大抵皆因辯論的信息量不足所致。

(2)質的控制

衡量辯論信息“質”，特別應該要求“新”。對辯論信息“質”的分析.就是要分析它的新穎程度。因為只有新穎的、信宿未知的信息。才能消除不確定性。這樣的信息在辯論中應該充當主要材料，發(fā)揮其辯護和辯駁的作用。辯論信息的質是辯論信息的量的保證。辯論信息只有在質上有一定新穎程度，才能保證足夠的信息量。要在辯論中保持足夠的新穎信息。有效地發(fā)揮其辯論功能，這就要求辯者不斷培養(yǎng)和服煉對新鮮事物和事理的敏銳的捕捉能力、要做到善于發(fā)現(xiàn)和識別、并及時運用、傳輸這些新穎的信息。

(3)關聯(lián)控制

辯論信息的真。表現(xiàn)為準確、客觀、全面。辯論中所運用的村料，不論是人、事、物、過程、環(huán)境、背景、細節(jié)、征引的言論，都應該準確無誤，與主題相關。所傳輸?shù)母鞣N信息，還必須是具體事實的真實與整體事實的真實有機的統(tǒng)一。它不應只是個別的、偶然的，而應是充分反映客觀事物的必然的實質的信息。辯論信息只有保持其真，才能被對手和受眾接受、信服、這才能發(fā)揮它的辯護和辯駁的功能，才能戰(zhàn)勝對手、說服受眾。

DAVID CAMERON:I don't want to bore people with the figures， but it is important. Up until 1997， the highest number for net migration into the UK was 77，000 in a year. Since 1997， since Labour came to power， it has never been lower than 140，000， sometimes it has been 200，000， that's equivalent to two million across a decade.

(4)方式控制

只有在辯論信息傳播過程中、達到這四方面的要求，才能使辯論的有效信息多。辯淪內容的質量高，辯論成功的把握大，這才能有可能獲得真理性的認識。

4.對合作原則的違反來提高人們的辯論能力

(1)禮貌和辯論

禮貌原則是主要是針對第三者，即針對同為聽話人的評委、主持人和觀眾而言?！把哉邿o心，聽者有意。”因此，辯論對方都很重視第三者的存在，事實上，這種辯論最重要的就是表演給第三者看和聽，要力爭獲得第三者的青睞。因此，除了說話人要說切合自己身份地位的話，還要盡可能主動多說尊重第三者身份地位處境的話，產生禮貌話語的正效應。

(2)幽默和辯論

GORDON BROWN:But I must say， I'm very worried about Nick's policy， because it sends a message to people all around the world， if you come to Britain there'll be some sort of amnesty that will allow you to come here freely in the end， without having to be thrown out of the country.

(3)反諷和辯論

GORDON BROWN:Politics can make a difference.

DAVID CAMERON:Politics can make a difference， Mary， but I would say the politicians in this country have been treating the people as mugs for far too long. They've been sort of saying， we can do everything， vote for us and we'll solve all your problems. Let us pass a few more laws， spend a bit more money， pass more regulation and all the trouble will be fixed. It is not really true， it is a big lie. The truth is， if you really want to change things， if you want safer streets， if yo want better schools， yes， the Government's got its role， but we've all got our responsibilities， too.

DAVID CAMERON:I just think it is disgraceful to try and frighten people in an election campaign， as Gordon Brown has just done， and as the Labour Party are doing up and down the country. I would like to take this opportunity to say very clearly to any pensioner in the audience， anyone listening at home， that we will keep the free television license， we will keep the pension credit， we'll keep the winter fuel allowance， we'll keep the free bus pass. Those leaflets you have been getting from Labour， the letters you have been getting from Labour are pure and simple lies. A politician shouldn't say lies very often， I say it because I have seen the leaflets and they make me really very， very angry. You should not be frightening people in an election campaign， it is just not right.#8239;

原則上，論辯應該適應于以具體的方式處理意見分歧。必須通過論辯消除懷疑和批評不僅涉及到對論辯的需求，還涉及到對論辯的內在和外在結構以及論辯的必不可少的要求標準。語用辯證法認為論辯言語應用具有調解分歧的作用。一個人以某種具體的方式采納、質問、拒絕、防守或攻擊某一特定的論點可能擁有種種動機。 “被說服”可以理解為起初攻擊某個言語行為的人轉而接受該言語行為的肯定承諾的外在體現(xiàn)。

三、關聯(lián)論辯

1.準邏輯論辯

說服性辯論的常見組織結構有陳述原因型，比較優(yōu)勢型，滿足標準型，解決問題型以及激發(fā)智力型。

陳述原因型:直接的組織結構，要用一定的順序來提出支持命題的理由。

比較優(yōu)勢型:該組織結構試圖證明提議的改變要比現(xiàn)狀好。

滿足標準型:一種間接地組織結構，它首先尋求聽眾對于評估一個命題所需的各項標準的認同，然后再說明該主張是如何符合這些標準的。

解決問題型:提供了一個框架，明確某個問題的本質，還說明了為什么辯論者主張的方法是最佳解決辦法。

NICK CLEGG:I believe we can rise to all of those challenges if we say no to the old parties and yes to something new and something different. That's what I offer and that's what the Liberal Democrats offer. So don't let them tell you that the only choice is between two old parties who have been playing pass the parcel with your government for 65 years now - making the same promises， breaking the same promises. Making the same old mistakes over and over again. I think， despite all the challenges， all the problems we have， I think we can be really hopeful about the future. I genuinely believe we can have a better fairer country if we do things differently. So give real change a chance. Trust your instincts. Support fairness. Choose something different.

激發(fā)智力型:不僅要影響聽眾的信念和態(tài)度，還要激發(fā)他們有所行動。

NICK CLEGG:I think if we do things differently， if we stand up for the value's that have made our country great， then we can be proud again， proud of greater fairness here at home， and proud also， of standing up for the things we believe in， in the world. We don't simply need to choose from the old choices of the past， we don't need to repeat the mistakes of the past. Don't let anyone tell you this time it can't be different. It can.

2.以現(xiàn)實結構為基礎的論辯

做說服性辯論時，具體目標應被陳述為命題。命題就是明確地表達出演講者對于他所宣傳的主題持什么立場，將其總結為一句宣言。

說服性辯論的目的有三種，可分為:事實命題，價值觀命題和政策命題。

事實命題是以說服聽眾相信某事是真的或假的，是否存在或者是否發(fā)生過為內容的命題。

價值觀命題是以說服聽眾相信某物是好的，壞的，值得的，不值得的，可靠的，有利的，重要的或不重要的為內容的命題。

GORDON BROWN:But David， I take responsibility for my decisions， and I ask people right throughout society to take responsibility. But you can't run the health service on a do-it-yourself principle， you have to finance it properly.

政策命題是以勸說聽眾要采取何種具體行動路線為內容的命題。

3.以現(xiàn)實結構為依據的論辯

說服性辯論所用的論證常有四種類型，分別是例證，類推論證，因果論證以及跡象論證例證是使用例子證明你的主張。

類推論證是用一個與主張內容具有很大相似性的可比例子作為強有力的證據來證明主張。

因果論證是利用例舉引起某個主張的若干事件來證明這個主張。

跡象論證是引用能夠預示結論的信息。

GORDON BROWN:I would say this evening， David;you're a risk to the economy. Nick， you're a risk because of what you're saying on Iran and on nuclear weapons to our security. Nick， you would leave us weak. David，you would leave us isolated in Europe.I think these are the problems that these parties have got to face up to. We have a credible long-term plan for the future of Britain.

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