摘要: 傳統(tǒng)的英語習(xí)語研究主要是習(xí)語的靜態(tài)研究。本文運用真實的書面語料對篇章中的習(xí)語進(jìn)行了分析,認(rèn)為英語習(xí)語在語篇中能夠作為詞匯銜接,從而對語篇的銜接作出貢獻(xiàn)。
關(guān)鍵詞: 英語習(xí)語語篇銜接詞匯銜接
1.引言
英語習(xí)語是英語詞匯中不可或缺的重要組成部分。正因為此,這幾年國內(nèi)學(xué)者對英語習(xí)語進(jìn)行了大量的研究。這些研究主要集中在習(xí)語的典故、習(xí)語的翻譯、英漢習(xí)語對比、習(xí)語的語義結(jié)構(gòu)等靜態(tài)方面。但對于英語習(xí)語的動態(tài)研究,即習(xí)語在正常的交際中的功能探討的不多。陶岳煉(2002)對于英語習(xí)語在語篇中的連接功能進(jìn)行了研究,認(rèn)為習(xí)語是語篇的一部分,在語篇中可以起到連接功能。常晨光(2003)強(qiáng)調(diào)無論是在口語交際還是書面交際中,習(xí)語都起著重要作用。本文在前人的研究基礎(chǔ)上,利用真實的書面語料,分析英語習(xí)語在語篇中的銜接作用。
澳大利亞學(xué)者費南多(C.Fernando)在《習(xí)語與習(xí)語特征》(Idioms and Idiomaticity)中,將習(xí)語按不同的語言功能劃分成概念性習(xí)語(ideational idioms)、人際互動性習(xí)語(interpersonal idioms)和連接性習(xí)語(relational idioms)。這種分類與韓禮德的語言三大元功能是一致的。這表明某些習(xí)語具有連接功能。陶岳煉(2002)也對此作了闡述。英語習(xí)語作為英語詞匯中的重要組成部分,除了連接性習(xí)語外,其他兩類習(xí)語在語篇中也可以作為詞匯銜接手段,促進(jìn)語篇的連貫,并起到特殊的修辭效果。
2.詞匯銜接
Halliday和Hasan將銜接劃分為語法銜接和詞匯銜接。詞匯銜接指通過詞的重復(fù)、同義、反義、上下義、互補(bǔ)、同現(xiàn)等詞匯間的語義關(guān)系使語篇連貫。詞匯銜接是通過詞匯的選擇而達(dá)到連貫效果。英語的詞匯銜接關(guān)系可分為兩大類:復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系(reiteration)和同現(xiàn)關(guān)系(collocation)(黃國文,1988:122-126)。Hoey認(rèn)為詞匯銜接是謀篇機(jī)制的主要手段,語篇中句子之間通過語義關(guān)系相互聯(lián)系,使得對語篇的解讀除了句法手段外,還必須依賴于同一語篇中其他詞項的語義關(guān)系。
2.1復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系
詞匯的復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系(reiteration)指的是通過某一詞以原詞、同義詞、近義詞、上義詞、下義詞、概括詞或其他形式重復(fù)出現(xiàn)在語篇中,語篇中的句子通過這種復(fù)現(xiàn)關(guān)系達(dá)到了相互銜接的目的。
習(xí)語在語篇中作為詞匯銜接一般可以分為兩種情況。第一種就是一個習(xí)語與和它意義相近的習(xí)語在同一語篇中形成銜接,例(1)就是一例:
You’ve heard the BAKER’s DOZEN.
Well,TESCO Didn’t Just Stop There.
Many bakers would have called it a day after coming up with all our white and brown breads:crusty,uncut,sliced,wheat germ,bran and whole meal.
Most would certainly have rested on their laurels after baking all of our buns(burger,bath,fruit,iced,Belgian,Chelsea),all of our rolls(snack,finger,bran and muesli).
But at TESCO we then went on(and on)to include crumpets,muffins,fruited batch,floured baps,sultana scones,syrup pancakes,pitta bread and croissants.
In all we’re introduced well over sixty different bakery lines,and we’re not at the end of the line yet.
Why not give some a try?
Though we feel we should warn you,once you’ve started you’ll probably find it very difficult to stop.
We couldn’t
Today’s
TESCO.
(Sunday Times Magazines of 25 September,1983,cited in Cowie:124-5)
習(xí)語“called it a day”,“rested on their laurels”,“at the end of the line”在這則廣告中形成了同義詞,充分反映了這家面包房對產(chǎn)品的種類和品質(zhì)鍥而不舍的追求。
第二種情況就是,有時作者為達(dá)到上下文的詞匯銜接,會對某一習(xí)語作一下改動,例(2)就是一例。這是一則NPI保險公司的廣告。
The Foneses kept up with each other until they retired.
(The accompanying illustration shows two different couples at different garden gates with different facial expressions:No.50 dejected vs.No.52 amused and happy.)
Numerical data:£2,732 p.a.state pension vs.£8,320 p.a.NPI pension.
The text reads:
They were earning the same salaries,with identical houses,comparable car,and matching life-styles.But the similarities stopped when they stopped work.
Mr. and Mrs. Fones at number 50 found themselves struggling to scrape by.
While the Foneses at number 52 carried on as before,living happier ever after.
Not surprisingly,the difference between a retirement dream and a pensioner’s nightmare is:
Money.
Or,more accurately,the lack of it...
Ask your broker,bank manager or other adviser about NIP.
Or clip the coupon.
After all,which of the foneses would you rather keep up with?
這則廣告對習(xí)語“keep up with the Joneses”作了改動,其中對“foneses”和習(xí)語的部分“keep up with”都進(jìn)行了重復(fù),有效地使整個篇章銜接一體。
2.2同現(xiàn)關(guān)系
同現(xiàn)關(guān)系(collocation)指的是詞匯共同出現(xiàn)的傾向性,詞匯的同現(xiàn)關(guān)系包括反義關(guān)系、互補(bǔ)關(guān)系等。它不僅指一個詞組或一個句子內(nèi)部的詞與詞的橫向組合關(guān)系,而且包括了跨句或跨段落的詞項的習(xí)慣性共現(xiàn),所涉及的詞項之間可能存在的若干不同的共現(xiàn)模式和語義關(guān)系。一般來說,當(dāng)一個語篇中出現(xiàn)了某個詞(如patient)時,讀者就會期待在該語篇的另一個地方找到與之搭配的另一個詞(如doctor),當(dāng)所期待的詞項在語篇中果真出現(xiàn)時,彼此搭配的詞項便把兩個甚至更多的不同的句子從語義上前后銜接起來,從而實現(xiàn)語篇的連貫。
例(3)The lenders would find themselves badly gored on the horns of a property dilemma.On the one hand they will have a large number of borrowers simply unable to pay any more,on the other,a property which is falling in value all the time.(Oxford Hector Pilot Corpus,cited in Moon,1998:286)
例(3)中的“dilemma”預(yù)示著下文中有可能會講到這個dilemma到底是什么。接著下文用了“on the one hand”,“on the other”兩個習(xí)語與上文中的dilemma組成搭配,從而使語篇從詞匯上形成銜接。
2.3復(fù)現(xiàn)和同現(xiàn)相結(jié)合
語篇中的詞匯銜接是比較復(fù)雜的。要組成一個連貫的語篇并不是單純地復(fù)現(xiàn)或同現(xiàn)的詞匯銜接所能完成的任務(wù),語篇中的復(fù)現(xiàn)和同現(xiàn)通常是互相結(jié)合的。習(xí)語用來作詞匯銜接也是如此。下面就是一個鮮明的例子:
例(4)Out of Sight,But much in Mind
Two years ago the problems of South Africa were problems for all the world:because the world could see them daily,in their mounting violence,on television screens.Then came the State of Emergecy.The pictures vanished.News copy was censored.Newspapers in South Africa were muffled,or banned.And some 30,000 blacks were locked away.Problems over?In one way,for a time,it almost seemed so.Out of sight was out of mind.Pressure for sanctions abated.Mrs.Thatcher was seen to smile triumphantly.
Appearances,however,were always deceptive.Behind the pall of censorship the town ships were still simmering in revolt.And yesterday,for any doubters,actions again spoke louder than words.Mr P.W.Botha renewed his State of Emergency just two days after the end of a strike by black trades unions which had brought much of the country to a halt.The problem of South Africa hasn’t gone away,and two years of television remission have done nothing to ease or address it.
(The Guardian,11 June,1988,cited in Moon)
這是一篇社論的開頭部分。首先,標(biāo)題“Out of Sight,But Much in Mind”與第一段中的“out of sight was out of mind”既是重復(fù)又是反義關(guān)系。習(xí)語中的“sight”與第一段開始對兩年前的情景描述中的“see”和“television screens”有詞匯銜接關(guān)系;而“out of sight”則與實行“緊急狀態(tài)”后的局勢(pictures vanished,news copy was censored,newspapers...were muffled,or banned,blacks were locked away)有同義關(guān)系。于是“out of sight”就似乎等于problems over。
第二段中的諺語“appearances were always deceptive”與“out of sight was out of mind”呈反義關(guān)系,說明后者只是一個虛假的等式,現(xiàn)實并非如此,南非的問題事實上并沒有結(jié)束。其中的“appearances”一詞與第一段中“it almost seemed so”中的“seemed”和第二段第二句中的“pall”構(gòu)成同義銜接。諺語所蘊含的現(xiàn)象和現(xiàn)實(appearances reality)之間的對立在另一個諺語“actions speak louder than words”中通過另一對立(actions,words)得到重復(fù)。其中“actions”和“words”又分別與“renewed”(State of Emergency)和第一段中的“pictures”,“news copy”及“newspapers”大致形成上下義關(guān)系。這種交錯復(fù)雜的詞匯銜接關(guān)系顯然增加了語篇的趣味性和吸引力,對加強(qiáng)語篇的文體效果有一定的作用。
2.4習(xí)語與上下文中詞匯銜接的不一致性
2.4.1隱喻性習(xí)語
很多英語習(xí)語在語義上是不可分割的整體,而不是組成習(xí)語的單詞字面意義的簡單累加,并且具有隱喻性特征。因此,從字面意義上看,習(xí)語常打斷語篇中的詞匯銜接。
例(5)They build on the introduction of general management into the MHS five years ago,which has seen all managers from region down to hospital move on rolling contracts and performance-related pay.That has undoubtedly improved the management of the service.But it has also reduced the managers’willingness to rock the boat in public—over resources,for example—however hard they may argue in private.(Oxford Hector Pilot Corpus,cited in Moon,R.1998:283)
顯然,例(5)中習(xí)語“rock the boat”中的單詞的字面意義與上下文中的詞匯是缺乏銜接的。但就習(xí)語“rock the boat”的整體意義而言并沒有影響銜接。習(xí)語中的限定詞the預(yù)示著所給信息是舊信息,一定可以根據(jù)這個習(xí)語的整體意義在語篇的上下文語境中找到這個舊信息。
當(dāng)然作者有時也會通過添加修飾成分等手段以增加隱喻性習(xí)語在語篇中與上下文的銜接效果,如上文提到的例(3)在習(xí)語“on the horns of a dilemma”中添加了“property”,“property”與前文的“l(fā)enders”和下文的“borrower”,“property”都形成了詞匯銜接關(guān)系,從而使得“on the horns of a property dilemma”整個習(xí)語與上下文更銜接。
2.4.2幽默和雙關(guān)
幽默的產(chǎn)生已經(jīng)有許多學(xué)者從多個角度進(jìn)行了研究。有些幽默的產(chǎn)生正是由于習(xí)語之間的銜接和雙關(guān)造成的。
例(6)The days of the graffiti are numbered—the writing is on the wall.
(7)“Someone’s bound to smell a rat,”as the diner said when he found a mouse in his stew.(Nash 1985:53,cited in Moon,1998:289)
在例(6)中習(xí)語“someone’s days are numbered”和“the writing is on the wall”基本是同義關(guān)系,而插入“graffiti”更是加強(qiáng)了它們之間的聯(lián)系,第一個習(xí)語與第二個習(xí)語不僅形成了詞匯銜接而且有意義銜接,第二個習(xí)語是對第一個習(xí)語的解釋。幽默的產(chǎn)生正是由于這兩個習(xí)語的并置。
例(7)則是由于習(xí)語“smell a rat”的字面意義和當(dāng)時的語境之間的搭配,才產(chǎn)生了幽默。說話者是利用了“rat”和“mouse”的同下義詞關(guān)系,smell和語境中的食物之間的搭配,使習(xí)語“smell a rat”和下文形成了銜接。
3.結(jié)語
本文通過真實語料對習(xí)語在語篇中的作為一種銜接手段進(jìn)行了分析。本文分析了習(xí)語與一般詞匯作為詞匯銜接所共有的特點和它作為詞匯銜接的獨特的表現(xiàn)方式,以及由此產(chǎn)生的文體效果。這說明英語習(xí)語不只是作為英語詞匯的靜態(tài)的一部分,而且是語篇中的一種有效的詞匯連接手段,我們今后應(yīng)該加強(qiáng)對習(xí)語的動態(tài)研究。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]Cowie,A.P.Phraseology:Theory,Analysis,Applications[M].London:Blackwell Retall,1998.
[2]Fernando,C.Idioms and Idiomaticity[M].上海外語教育出版社,2000.
[3]Halliday,M.A.K. Hasan,R.Cohesion in English[M].London:Longman,1976.
[4]Hoey,M.Patterns of Lexis in Text[M].上海外語教育出版社,2000.
[5]Moon,R.Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English:A Corpus-Based Approach[M].Oxford:Clarendon Press,1998.
[6]常晨光,戴凡.語篇中的英語習(xí)語[J].外語教學(xué),2003,(5):27-30.
[7]胡壯麟.語篇的銜接與連貫[M].上海外語教育出版社,2000.
[8]黃國文.語篇分析概要[M].湖南教育出版社,1988年.
[9]陶岳煉.英語習(xí)語的連接功能[J].西安外國語學(xué)院學(xué)報,2002(2):22-25.