Promoting the International Dissemination of Chinese Culture Through International Chinese Language Education: A Case Study of Chinese-English Idiomatic Equivalence

Jia Fengrong＊

Sichuan Academy of Social Sciences

Abstract: One major task of our improvement of China’s international communication capabilities is to tell China’s stories well and make China’s voice heard to communicate a comprehensive, multi-dimensional view of China in the international arena.International Chinese language education bears the dual responsibility of spreading the Chinese language and promoting the Chinese culture.How to shape global narratives for telling China’s stories and improve China’s international communication capabilities has become an important issue that concerns international Chinese language education.Chinese idioms, which are hidden treasures of the Chinese language, can play a unique role in this regard.It is therefore necessary to review the content and methods of including idioms in international Chinese language education.In this paper, instruction in idioms is approached by making a corpus-based comparative analysis from the theoretical perspectives of equivalence, cognitive metaphor, and second language acquisition.Qualitative and quantitative methods are combined to analyze idioms to be added to the vocabulary of international Chinese language education in three dimensions: word frequency, semantic transparency, and functional equivalence.This paper aims to explore a new approach to the dissemination of Chinese culture through instruction in idioms in international Chinese language education.

Keywords: international Chinese language education, idioms, word frequency, semantic transparency, functional equivalence, international communication capabilities

One major task of our improvement of China’s international communication capabilities is to tell China’s stories well and make China’s voice heard to communicate a true, comprehensive, and multi-dimensional view of China in the international arena.In this endeavor, international Chinese language education should make its due contribution.While interacting with other civilizations worldwide, China is exploring how to showcase the unique charm and universality of its language and culture,which requires wisdom and innovation.

International Chinese language education has continually adapted to new development trends and demands, with its initial aim shifting from improvements of learners’ language skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing to the cultivation of their Chinese communication capabilities.Nowadays, international Chinese language education is more than simply instructing vocabulary and grammar, and it shoulders the historical responsibility of disseminating Chinese culture.Language is a vital part of human connections.As an old Chinese saying goes, “Words are the voice of the mind.” The “mind” of a nation becomes indispensable to its culture.It is fair to say that language is the cornerstone of cultural exchanges, and also the key to a country and its culture.

Vocabulary is an integral part of language and plays an irreplaceable role in cross-cultural communication.British linguist D.A.Wilkins argued in hisLinguistics in Language Teachingthat “While without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (1972, pp.111–112).

Chinese idioms, as an important part of Chinese vocabulary, carry cultural meanings and traditional values.They are widely used in both spoken and written language.Suzanne Irujo endorsed the argument that “Familiarity with a wide range of idiomatic expressions and the ability to use them appropriately in context are among the distinguishing marks of a native—like command of English” (Cowie & Mackin, 1975,as cited in Irujo, 1986, p.236).For the same reason, idioms are also critical indicators of learners’ command of the Chinese language, for which instruction in idioms should be a focal point of vocabulary teaching in international Chinese language education.TheXinhua Chengyu Da Cidian[Comprehensive Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms] (2013)includes over 26,000 idioms, of which some 3,000 are commonly used (Pan, 2006).Zeng Xiaobing in 2010 conducted qualitative and quantitative research on the annual use of idioms.The results show that the use frequency of 800 high-frequency idioms accounted for 90 percent of the use frequency of all idioms (Zeng & Qiu, 2010).Zhang Yanping compiled 900 commonly used idioms as reference for the study of idioms difficult for learners of Chinese as a second language (Zhang, 2012).The newSyllabus of Graded Words and Characters for Chinese Proficiency(hereinafter referred to as the newSyllabus) (HSK Test Center, 2001), which covered 120 idioms, is implemented in the international practice of Chinese language teaching.TheChinese Proficiency Grading Standards for International Chinese Language Education(hereinafter referred to as theStandards) was released by the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission.There were a total of 400 idioms①Exclusive of “quadrisyllabic words” which do not contain any allusions, metaphors, or extended meanings, and which can be understood literally (Dictionary Research Center of the Commercial Press [DRCCP], 2013, p.1).listed in theStandards.Compared to the 120 idioms in the newSyllabus, this figure (i.e., 400 idioms) marked a substantial increase.

Can the 400 idioms meet the requirements of international Chinese language education? Take Band 9, the highest band of theStandards, as an example.Band 9 means the test taker has an “expert” level of proficiency in Chinese listening,speaking, reading, writing, and translation.More specifically, the test taker is capable of completing the following tasks in Chinese: (a) combining language skills to enable social interactions across topics and contexts in a normal, fluent, and appropriate way; (b) covering a variety of topics ranging from academic research, policies,regulations, business and trade, to international affairs; (c) grasping Chinese habits of mind and expression and using reading skills to interpret the core ideas and cultural essence of essays; (d) using complex sentence structures and rhetorical techniques correctly to present with eloquence and literariness (Ministry of Education & State Language Commission, 2021).These tasks are highly demanding.Without a profound understanding and mastery of Chinese idioms, learners are unlikely to reach Band 9.

Accordingly, there are some questions to be answered by every teacher of Chinese as a second language.What idioms and how many must be mastered by Chinese language learners to write eloquent and insightful articles and interpret the core ideas and cultural essence of essays? What instruction approaches can help learners comprehend the uniqueness and universality of Chinese idioms to achieve a harmonious integration of diverse cultures? How can we leverage Chinese idioms in international Chinese language education to help Chinese culture go global?

Literature Review

In the domain of international Chinese language education, initial research on idioms predominantly focused on the idioms themselves.With the evolution of the field over time, this research paradigm has progressively broadened and intensified in depth.The research encompasses various aspects, including the investigation of classroom teaching strategies for idioms, analysis of errors in idiom acquisition, and comparative studies of Chinese idioms with idioms from other languages.

In this paper, idioms in the vocabulary of international Chinese language education were specifically examined, with an emphasis on research progress and status in this field.

Relevant Studies Abroad

In the late 20th century, the idea of establishing a system of standards for foreign language education came into being in the European Union and the United States.In 1996, the United States introduced theStandards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century(National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1999).In 2001, the European Union issuedA Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:Learning,Teaching,Assessment[CEFR].①https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1bfThese frameworks highlighted the communicative function of languages, focusing on the cultivation of cultural awareness and the comprehensive development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing abilities.One of the basic, necessary tasks in second language teaching is the development of a word list.“A properly designed word list for vocabulary teaching is a basic premise of language teaching design, textbook compilation, classroom teaching, and proficiency testing” (Liu & Zhang, 2008, p.109).In 1898, German scholar F.W.Kaeding compiledH?ufigkeitsw?rterbuch der deutschen Sprache[Frequency Dictionary of the German Language], which was the world’s first frequency dictionary.In 1920, British scholars Charles K.Ogden and Ivor A.Richards followed their language sense and compiledBasic English, which consists of 850 essential English words, thus embarking on a shift of focus to the study of vocabulary learning and teaching.In 1921, Edward L.Thorndike, then professor of psychology at Columbia University, published the 10,000-wordTeacher’s Word Book.American scholar Michael West (1953) publishedA General Service List of English Words[GSL], a list of roughly 2,000 essential English words.TheGSL, which claims to cover over 90 percent of colloquial speech and over 80 percent of common written texts,has set a benchmark for developing English language syllabuses worldwide.Its 2013 update, known as theNew General Service List[NGSL], contains 2,809 core English words, giving an average of 92 percent coverage of most texts of general English.

Relevant studies abroad are mostly based on English vocabulary, and scant attention has been paid to word lists for international Chinese language education.In the doctoral dissertationTowards a New Approach to Constructing a Country-Specific Word List for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language:The Case of South Korea, Kam Seowon(2004) from South Korea briefly reviewed the development of word list studies outside China and discussed the compilation of country-specific word lists.There are scholars from countries such as Indonesia and Vietnam studying vocabulary words from the grammatical perspective and offering suggestions to learners from their respective countries.In short, more effort from foreign scholars is needed in the further study of word lists for teaching Chinese as a second language.

Relevant Studies in China

In 2009, the Center for Language Education and Cooperation (commonly referred to as the Hanban) presided over the compilation of the newSyllabus of Graded Words and Characters for Chinese Proficiency(the newSyllabus).In October 2010, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission co-released theGraded Chinese Syllables,Characters and Words for the Application of Teaching Chinese to the Speakers of Other Languages, which covers 11,092 words, including 450 quadrisyllabic words (4.06 percent).In 2021, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission issued theChinese Proficiency Grading Standards for International Chinese Language Education(theStandards).One striking change found in theStandardswas the substantial increase in idioms.

All such syllabuses, grades, and standards reflect that international Chinese language education is adapting to the development of the times.How to properly create lists of common words for international Chinese language education has become a major research topic.Some scholars have done statistical analyses, calculating and grading Chinese characters and words for teaching Chinese as a second language.There are also studies of vocabulary words, which mainly focus on two aspects: (a) the compilation of word lists and (b) vocabulary teaching in international Chinese language education.First, studies that focus on the compilation of word lists involve vocabulary range, word frequency, grading, tagging, criteria for inclusion, and version update.Second, studies that focus on vocabulary teaching in international Chinese language education involve lexicon-ontology relationships and applications to teaching.

Existing Problems

Overall, remarkable achievements have been made in instructing idioms in international Chinese language education.Still, there are notable problems in using Chinese-English idiomatic equivalence to promote the international dissemination of Chinese culture.

The first problem concerns the content and progress in instructing idioms.TheStandards(GF0025-2021) includes 400 idioms, making up only 3.6 percent of the whole vocabulary (11,092 words).Such a small portion fails to highlight the importance of instructing idioms and makes it impossible to meet the needs of learners of Chinese as a second language.Besides, the fact that idiom teaching is predominantly offered to higher-grade students delays the delivery of well-timed idiom teaching.

The second problem concerns insufficient research on the innovation of classroom teaching methods.International Chinese language education is supposed to promote the international dissemination of Chinese culture.Learners of Chinese as a second language come from different countries and varied cultural backgrounds.This diversity is a critical prerequisite for promoting the international dissemination of Chinese culture.In light of these conditions, the adaptation of teaching methods to accommodate the diverse cultural needs of learners emerges as a pivotal inquiry for teachers of Chinese as a second language.The task of imparting the nuanced and historically rich Chinese idioms within an international context, with the aim of sharing the rich cultural heritage behind them with learners globally in the new era, presents itself as both a formidable and intriguing endeavor.

Research Significance and Path

The long-lasting Chinese civilization has nurtured a vast sea of ancient codes and records.Chinese idioms, featuring a unique cultural form and profound cultural meanings, play an irreplaceable role in international Chinese language education.Interpreting Chinese idioms means deciphering certain parts of China’s cultural history.By learning Chinese idioms, learners can gain a comprehensive understanding of the Chinese language (classical Chinese in particular), as well as the cultural essence embedded in those idioms.

Learners can gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of the cultural essence embodied in Chinese characters through the study of Chinese idioms.“Chinese characters are logograms used to write the Chinese language.The increasingly sophisticated Chinese characters form the world’s only ideographic writing system in continuous use since its invention some six thousand years ago” (Wang, 2014, p.76).TheShuowen Jiezi[Discussing Writing and Explaining Characters], the first Chinese character dictionary in history, was compiled to fulfill the historical mission of allowing “the former generation to record their own experience and pass it on to later generations, who can rely on it to understand the ancient history.” Chinese idioms are mostly rooted in ancient classics, and thus they feature many ancient Chinese characters.Through learning idioms, students of the Chinese language can better appreciate the cultural significance of Chinese characters.

Chinese idioms help students learn about the history of Chinese civilization, which spans thousands of years.Countless classics recorded in Chinese characters are invested with a profound cultural history.Regarding the origins of Chinese idioms, Mo Pengling made a statistical analysis inChinese Idioms and Chinese Culture.According to Mo(2001), Chinese idioms mainly come from three sources, namely, Confucian classics,classics of other schools, and poetry through the ages.

Idioms help increase philosophical wisdom.Chinese philosophy is a comprehensive system that combines vigorousness with proactiveness, harmony with modesty, an inner world with material life, and nature with man (Zhang & Cheng, 2015, p.27).These elements find expression in idioms such as “自強不息” (zì qiáng bù xī: constantly strive to become stronger),“厚德載物” (hòu dé zài wù: a person of great virtue can shoulder great responsibilities), “同舟共濟” (tóng zhōu gòng jì: cross a river in the same boat—to pull together in times of trouble),and “地利人和” (dì lì rén hé: the advantage of the location and harmony of the masses), which without exception embody the unique wisdom of Chinese philosophy.

As Francis Bacon said, “The genius, wit, and the spirit of a nation are discovered by their proverbs.” The above analysis shows that the cultural meanings and value orientations behind Chinese idioms do indeed embody the essence of traditional Chinese culture.Therefore,instruction in idioms plays a unique and irreplaceable role in international Chinese language education.Building on previous work, we further approached instruction in idioms by making a corpus-based comparative analysis from the theoretical perspectives of equivalence, cognitive metaphor, and second language acquisition.We combined qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze idioms to be added to the vocabulary of international Chinese language education in three dimensions: word frequency, semantic transparency, and functional equivalence.The objective is to explore a novel approach to globally disseminating Chinese culture and enhancing China’s international communication capabilities by incorporating idiom instruction into international Chinese language education.

Criteria for the Inclusion of Idioms into the Vocabulary of International Chinese Language Education

To date, judging from the number of research results, remarkable progress has been made in the ontological research on idioms used in international Chinese language education.However, there is still a lack of sufficient research regarding the selection and inclusion of idioms and how to improve instruction in idioms to promote the international dissemination of Chinese culture.Should international Chinese language education focus only on language skills, its capacity to fulfill its cultural role will inevitably be diminished, making it challenging to spread traditional Chinese culture worldwide.Therefore, it is imperative to blend theory with practice in comprehensive research to help overcome these limitations in instructing idioms.

Definition of Chinese Idioms

Regarding the definition ofChengyu[Chinese idioms], there is a dispute as to whether Chinese idioms are phrases or short sentences.Although the definition of Chinese idioms varies, there are some common features consistently emphasized, such as “being commonly used, featuring fixed structure and semantic integrity, and usually consisting of four characters” (Jia, 2014, p.3).

According toOxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary(6th Edition),an idiom is “a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words” (Hornby, 2004, p.873).According toCambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, an idiom is “a group of words in a fixed order that have a particular meaning that is different from the meanings of each word on its own.”

This study primarily concentrates on Chinese idioms imbued with profound cultural and historical significance, particularly those that have English idiomatic equivalents.It delves deeply into an exploration and examination of these idioms, aiming to elucidate the intricate interplay between linguistic expression and cultural heritage.

Grading of Chinese Idioms by Difficulty

This research proposes a scientifically formulated set of selection criteria aimed at identifying idioms suitable for teaching in the context of international Chinese language education.These criteria take into account both the idioms’ frequency of use and their relative difficulty to learners.This dual consideration ensures that the selected idioms are not only commonly used in the Chinese language but are also appropriately challenging for students, thereby optimizing the educational value and practical applicability of the idioms in an international pedagogical setting.We applied theories such as semantic transparency and functional equivalence to our study and examined the data from theLanguage Situation in Chinaconcerning the frequency of Chinese idioms over the past five years (2018–2022) to rank the idioms in easy-to-difficult order.The rankings also informed the addition of idioms into the vocabulary and textbooks of international Chinese language education.

Frequency of use

For learners of Chinese as a second language, the goal is to comprehend and utilize the language effectively.Consequently, idioms that are commonly used should be incorporated into their vocabulary.Using the corpus data from Center for Chinese Linguistics, Peking University [CCL],①The CCL corpus contained nearly 1.2 billion bytes of the modern Chinese language, including 10,645 uniquely shaped characters.The corpus data on the modern Chinese language fell into two categories: the pre-1949 “modern” data and the post-1949 “contemporary” data.There were about 15 million bytes of pre-1949 “modern” data (1.28% of the total bytes of modern Chinese language) and about 1.18 billion bytes of post-1949 “contemporary” data (98.72% of the total bytes of modern Chinese language) in 10 genres such as colloquial text, literary text, cyber text, and practical text (Zhan et al., 2019, pp.72–73).http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/we first analyzed the frequency of idioms from theStandards’ vocabulary (hereinafter referred to as the SV idioms) (see Table 1).

Table 1 Frequency of SV Idioms in CCL Corpus

Table 1 shows that 90.25 percent of the SV idioms registered a use frequency of over 200, and only 34.25 percent of them registered a use frequency of over 1,000.

We further analyzed the frequency of SV idioms in the “Annual Media List of Idioms”①Take the “2020 Annual Media List of Idioms” as an example.This list was formulated in two steps.First, the “2020 Annual Media List of Words”, with a total of 2,181,132 words, was compared with Xinhua Chengyu Cidian [Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms] published by The Commercial Press in 2002.Second, words that could also be found in Xinhua Chengyu Cidian were extracted.As a result, 6,557 idioms were extracted from the total 8,418 idioms in Xinhua Chengyu Cidian to form the “2020 Annual Media List of Idioms.” Each idiom was provided with its frequency in the media, the number of texts in which it appeared,and the specific media in which it appeared.of theLanguage Situation in Chinaover the past five years (2018–2022) (see Table 2).

Table 2 Frequency of SV Idioms in the Language Situation in China (2018–2022)

As is shown in Table 2, of all the SV idioms in the “Annual Media List of Idioms”over the past five years (2018–2022), those with a use frequency of over 1,000 accounted for approximately 33.25 percent (2018), 29 percent (2019), 31.25 percent(2020), 28.25 percent (2021), and 30.75 percent (2022), respectively; those with a use frequency of over 500 accounted for about 52.25 percent (2018), 47.25 percent (2019),48.5 percent (2020), 48.5 percent (2021), and 48 percent (2022), respectively.In other words, nearly 50 percent of the SV idioms had a use frequency of fewer than 500 over the past five years.In addition, SV idioms with a use frequency of fewer than 200 accounted for approximately 29 percent (2018), 37.25 percent (2019), 31.5 percent (2020),31.5 percent (2021), and 32.55 (2022).By contrast, there were non-SV idioms in the“Annual Media List of Idioms” (2018–2022) registering a use frequency of over 1,000,and the number of such idioms reached 224 in 2018, 207 in 2019, 172 in 2020, 276 in 2021, and 369 in 2022.If frequency of use becomes one of the criteria for the selection and inclusion of idioms into the vocabulary of theStandards, two questions arise: Can high- or medium-frequency idioms be included? Should high-frequency idioms be added to the vocabulary? Given this, it is necessary to further analyze high-frequency idioms not yet identified as SV idioms in the dimensions of semantic transparency and functional equivalence.We can select idioms as additions to, or replacements of those in theStandards’ vocabulary to help learners of Chinese as a second language to improve their performance and proficiency.

It is noteworthy that the idioms studied in this paper are primarily derived from two sources: (a) high-frequency idioms in theLanguage Situation in China(2018–2022); and (b) idioms inA Dictionary of Chinese Usage:8000 Words.We posit that scientifically sound criteria for idiom selection should be multidimensional,encompassing the frequency of use of the idioms, as well as their cultural significance, pedagogical appropriateness, and their potential role in fostering cultural exchanges and mutual understanding of civilizations within the context of international Chinese language education.This approach acknowledges the richness of idiomatic expressions as cultural artifacts and educational tools, ensuring that their selection is not merely based on linguistic prevalence but also on their capacity to bridge cultural divides and enrich the educational experience.

Semantic transparency

The concept of semantic transparency was introduced by British linguist Stephen Ullmann in 1962.“Semantic transparency refers to the extent to which the meaning of a multimorphemic word can be determined from the meaning of its constituents” (Auch et al., 2020).According to Martin Sch?fer:

Semantic transparency is a scalar notion.At the top end of the scale are combinations whose meaning is fully transparent, that is, combinations whose meaning is predictable.Conversely, at the bottom end are combinations whose meaning is opaque.In between, there are combinations with varying degrees of relatedness between the constituents’ meaning and the meaning of the whole, and with varying degrees of predictability based on typical ways of combining these constituents.(Sch?fer, 2018, p.1)

In this discussion of “semantic transparency,” the adjective “semantic” specifically refers to the lexical meaning of words.According to the degrees of semantic transparency, we divided Chinese idioms into three groups: direct inference, partial inference, and no inference (Jia, 2014, p.26).

For the first group, the meaning of Chinese idioms can be directly inferred from the meanings of their constituents.Examples include “飲水思源” (yǐn shuǐ sī yuán: think of the spring when drinking water, i.e., be grateful for the source of one’s fortune) and “雨過天晴” (yǔ guò tiān qíng: sky clears after rain, i.e., return to normal).

For the second group, the meaning of Chinese idioms can be partially inferred from the meanings of their constituents.Examples include “迫在眉睫” (pò zài méi jié: be pressing in on one’s eyelashes, i.e., be hanging over one’s head; imminent) and “捉襟見肘” (zhuō jīn jiàn zhǒu: pull down one’s jacket to conceal the raggedness, only to expose one’s elbows, i.e., be in straitened circumstances; be hard up).

For the third group, the meaning of Chinese idioms cannot be inferred from the meanings of their constituents.Examples include “緣木求魚” (yuán mù qiú yú: climb a tree to catch fish, i.e., get blood from a stone; do the impossible) and “破釜沉舟” (pò fǔ chén zhōu: break the caldrons and sink the boats, i.e., cut off all means of retreat to show one’s determination to press ahead).

When determining the semantic transparency of Chinese idioms, we primarily relied on the Chinese proficiency required by theStandardsamong learners of Chinese as a second language.In theStandards, learners’ Chinese proficiency is measured by mastery of four basic language elements: syllables, characters, vocabulary, and grammar.

The numbers of words and idioms in the word lists for all HSK bands are shown below (see Table 3), with Chinese idioms concentrated in word lists for HSK Band 7–9,which apply to advanced learners of Chinese as a second language.

Table 3 Inclusion of Words in the Standards ① Chinese idioms included in this study were from Xinhua Chengyu Da Cidian [Comprehensive Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms] (DRCCP, 2013).

Semantic transparency is subject to various influencing factors, including specific contextual elements and the Chinese language proficiency of learners.Consequently, it is imperative to take into account these pertinent factors when evaluating and assigning grades to Chinese idioms.

Functional Equivalence

In 1790, Alexander Tytler completed theEssay on the Principles of Translation, in which he argued that a good translation should follow three principles:

I.That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.II.That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.III.That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.(Tytler,1907, p.9)

Eugene Nida, a pioneer of contemporary translation studies and linguistics, developed dynamic equivalence and elaborated it inToward a Science of Translatingin 1964.Dynamic equivalence means “that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message” (Nida, 1964, p.159).In theTheory and Practice of Translationco-authored by Nida and Taber, dynamic equivalence was further explained:

Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.This response can never be identical, for the cultural and historical settings are too different, but there should be a high degree of equivalence of response, or the translation will have failed to accomplish its purpose.(Nida &Taber, 1969, p.24)

Later, Nida and Waard replaced “dynamic equivalence” with “functional equivalence” “Nida stresses the importance of context for communication when dealing with metaphorical meaning and with complex cultural idioms, for example, where the sense of the phrase often diverges from the sum of the individual elements” (Munday, 2008, p.39).According to Nida, a word acquires meaning when placed in context, and it can produce different responses in diverse cultural backgrounds.

The concepts of semantic transparency and functional equivalence are instrumental in revealing similarities between Chinese and English.Research in international Chinese language education, while primarily concentrating on the core disparities in phonetics and grammar between the two languages, should also consider semantic and lexical elements.This approach bridges the gap between overarching and detailed aspects of language study.

In practice, the more commonalities that exist between Chinese and English, the easier it is for students to learn; conversely, greater differences lead to more difficulties and errors.When Chinese students learn English, the most common errors occur in the tense and voice of verbs.It is generally believed that Chinese, unlike English, lacks obligatory morphological markers for these linguistic features.For instance, in expressing actions in Chinese such as “eat” every day, “ate” yesterday, or “will eat” tomorrow, the predicate verb “吃” (chī) undergoes no morphological changes.However, in the process of learning English, due to alterations in temporal adverbs within a sentence, verbs must correspondingly undergo modifications.For instance, the verb for daily consumption,“eat,” changes to “eats” when the subject is third-person singular, “ate” for yesterday’s meal, and “will eat” for the forthcoming meal, not to mention the myriad variations in tense and voice.Similarly, learners of Chinese as a second language may find learning Chinese idioms challenging, partly due to the low semantic transparency of these idioms.Chinese idioms often retain ancient words and grammatical structures from classical Chinese.Traditional classroom teaching methods, which involve explaining the semantics and grammar of ancient Chinese within these idioms, can be both tedious and difficult for students.This complexity could hinder their ability to master the idioms and lead to errors when using idioms.However, by innovatively utilizing Chinese idioms that have English equivalents in classroom teaching, we can, to some extent, aid learners in more effectively addressing these challenges.

Analysis of Idiomatic Equivalence as an Approach to Vocabulary Teaching in International Chinese Language Education

Concept and Possibility of Chinese-English Idiomatic Equivalence

Lv Shuxiang (1992, p.4) once remarked, “To understand the characteristics of the Chinese language, one must compare it with non-Chinese languages.” Wang Li (1985)held that teaching Chinese as a second language should prioritize the task of enabling learners to overcome difficulties.One such difficulty lies in the instruction of Chinese idioms.

So, is it possible to find English equivalents for Chinese idioms? Is Chinese-English idiomatic equivalence possible in terms of semantics, grammar, and pragmatics? We contend that languages exhibit both distinctions and, naturally, commonalities.This is because throughout the extensive course of human development, there have been numerous intersections and convergences.Just as over 2000 years ago, under the same sky, ancient Eastern philosophy radiated the profound brilliance of Pre-Qin thinkers; in distant Europe during the same era, great philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle emerged.Human thoughts are interconnected, emotions are universally shared, and the commonalities in human civilization far surpass the differences.Such homogeneity is reflected in language through idioms that can seamlessly connect, blend, and communicate.Whether in language instruction or language acquisition, these equivalent idioms scattered across different languages, akin to pearls within gravel, captivate observers, prompting awe at the enchantment and beauty of language.

International Chinese language education involves teaching Chinese as a second language.In hisLinguistics across Cultures:Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers,Robert Lado (1957, p.59) pointed out that the learning process of a foreign language is a process of transferring from one’s native language habits to foreign language habits.By instructing Chinese idioms that have English idiomatic equivalents, we can break down language and cultural barriers.This approach enhances the impact of “positive language transfer,” facilitates the integration and comprehensive understanding of languages,and promotes the exchange between different cultures.Consequently, this strategy contributes to the international dissemination of Chinese culture, serving as a bridge for both linguistic comprehension and cultural exchange.The equivalence is instrumental in fostering a deeper appreciation and understanding of Chinese culture on a global scale, thereby enriching the process of language learning with cultural insights and perspectives.

After all, Chinese and English are two distinct languages, exhibiting significant differences in both form and content.The idioms discussed in this paper are those that share certain similarities in semantics, grammar, and pragmatics, without rigidly insisting on uniformity across all three aspects.This approach acknowledges the inherent linguistic diversity while exploring areas of convergence, thereby facilitating a more nuanced and adaptable framework for comparative linguistic analysis.

Analysis of Chinese-English Idiomatic Equivalence

This study aims to examine the equivalence of Chinese and English idioms at the semantic, grammatical, and pragmatic levels, with a particular emphasis on the comparison of semantics and pragmatics.Idioms, as a vital component of language, carry rich cultural and historical information, displaying unique cultural characteristics and modes of expression in different languages.

Chinese idioms are characterized by their distinctive forms, structures, and phonetic features.These idioms are often symmetrical and neat in structure, with a certain rhythmic beauty, a notable feature of Chinese idioms.For instance, idioms like “畫龍點睛” (huà lóng diǎn jīng, bringing the dragon to life by dotting its eyes) and “錦上添花” (jǐn shàng tiān huā, icing on the cake) not only convey profound meanings semantically but also exhibit harmony in form.

In contrast, English idioms do not typically emphasize symmetry, neatness, and rhythm as Chinese idioms do.English idioms focus more on direct expression, with diverse structures and less strict formal constraints.For example, idioms like “a piece of cake” or “break the ice,” though semantically expressive, do not pursue phonetic symmetry or rhythmic sense in form.

Therefore, the focus of this study is to examine the extent of equivalence in semantics and pragmatics between Chinese and English idioms.Semantic equivalence refers to whether idioms in both languages convey similar or identical meanings, while pragmatic equivalence concerns the function and usage of idioms in actual language use.For instance, the Chinese idiom “望梅止渴” (wàng méi zhǐ kě) and the English idiom “a carrot on a stick” differ in direct translation but share similarities in semantics and pragmatics.

Through comparative analysis of Chinese and English idioms at these levels, we can gain a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences between the two languages, providing richer resources and methodologies for teaching Chinese as a second language.

Specifically, complete equivalence can be divided into five types.

Being Semantically and Pragmatically Identical, and Plainly Allegorical

Example 1: “塞翁失馬” (sài wēng shī mǎ) vs.“Every cloud has a silver lining”

According toXinhua Chengyu Da Cidian[Comprehensive Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms], the idiom “塞翁失馬” (sài wēng shī mǎ) originates fromHuainanzi.

In a village near the border, there lived an old man skilled in divination.One day,his horse ran off into the lands of the nomads.Everyone consoled him, but the old man said, “How do we know this is not a blessing?” Months later, his horse returned, bringing with it a fine nomad steed.Everyone congratulated him, but the old man said, “How do we know this is not a disaster?”

It is a metaphor for a blessing in disguise, where a misfortune turns into a good fortune under certain conditions.

Grammatically, this idiom is in a subject-predicate structure, used as an object or a clause, and employed in consoling expressions.

According toCambridge Dictionary, “Every cloud has a silver lining” is said to emphasize that every difficult or unpleasant situation has some advantage.The origin of this idiom can be attributed to the English poet John Milton.In his poem “Comus” (1634),an early form of this idiom appears.It goes, “Was I deceiv’d, or did a sable cloud/ Turn forth her silver lining on the night?” Here, the “sable cloud” (dark cloud) turning out its“silver lining” (silver edge) vividly depicts the image of finding light in darkness.

Subsequently, this expression evolved into the form we are familiar with today, “Every cloud has a silver lining,” and is widely used to convey optimism and hope, even in the face of difficulties and challenges.

Both idioms share a common meaning and pragmatic function, and both have their own stories.Therefore, this Chinese-English idiomatic pair can be considered to reach the level of complete equivalence.

Being Semantically and Pragmatically Identical, and Grammatically Similar

In teaching Chinese as a second language, idiomatic allusions often arouse learners’ strong curiosity and desire to learn.Teachers can use this curiosity to enable instruction in idioms by comparing Chinese-English idiomatic pairs.This way of instruction can help learners identify with the Chinese culture and increase their interest in Chinese language learning for better performance, thereby spreading the Chinese culture and establishing a cultural connection between Chinese and English.

Example 2: “口蜜腹劍” (kǒu mì fù jiàn) vs.“a wolf in sheep’s clothing”

According to XinhuaChengyu Da Cidian[Comprehensive Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms], the idiom “口蜜腹劍” (kǒu mì fù jiàn, honey-mouthed and dagger-hearted),describes someone who speaks sweetly but harbors malicious intentions, characterizing a person as cunning and sinister.Grammatically, this idiom is of a compound structure;it can be used as a predicate or an attributive in a sentence; and it carries a derogatory connotation.

According toCambridge Dictionary, the English idiom “a wolf in sheep’s clothing”refers to a person with a pleasant and friendly appearance that hides the fact that they are evil.

Both idioms convey similar meanings, indicating sinister intentions beneath a facade of friendliness.Both have derogatory connotations and can be used as the predicate in a sentence.The Chinese idiom can also be used as an attributive in a sentence, whereas the English idiom cannot.

This Chinese-English idiomatic pair can be considered ingeniously connected and completely equivalent.In teaching Chinese as a second language, such anecdotes are likely to capture students’ interest.If utilized fully in teaching, such Chinese-English idiomatic pairs with historical allusions can increase students’ learning interest and learning efficiency.

Being Semantically and Pragmatically Identical, and Referentially Consistent

Chinese-English idiomatic equivalence can be intriguing.Despite the distinct linguistic and cultural environments, these widely separated communities sometimes exhibit striking linguistic similarities, particularly in idiomatic expressions.

Example 3: “渾水摸魚” (hún shuǐ mō yú) vs.“fish in troubled waters”

According toXinhua Chengyu Da Cidian[Comprehensive Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms], “渾水” (hún shuǐ) refers to muddy and unclear water.“渾水摸魚” (hún shuǐ mō yú), means to take advantage of chaos for personal gain.Grammatically, this idiom has a modifier-head structure; it can be used as a predicate or an attributive in a sentence; it carries a derogatory connotation.According to theCambridge Dictionary, the English idiom “fish in troubled waters” means trying to win an advantage from a difficult situation or from someone else’s problems.They both imply profiting from chaos, can be used as predicates in sentences, have derogatory connotations, and share similar metaphors involving “water” and “fish.”

Overall, while these idioms come from different languages and cultures, they remarkably converge in their metaphorical meaning and usage, illustrating a common human understanding of exploiting chaotic situations for personal gain.This Chinese-English idiomatic pair is a vivid illustration of “異曲同工” (yì qǔ tóng gōng)— reaching the same goal by different means.

Being Semantically Identical, Pragmatically Similar, and Referentially and Structurally Inconsistent

Metaphors are widely employed in both Chinese and English idioms.Some metaphors feature the same figurative representation, while others do not.When comparing idioms with semantically similar but culturally distinct figurative representations in the classroom, students show great interest.At times, with students from various countries in the same class, such discussions often evoke awe-inspiring reflections, further enhancing the enthusiasm for learning.

Example 4: “如魚得水” (rú yú dé shuǐ) vs.“take to something like a duck to water”

According toXinhua Chengyu Da Cidian[Comprehensive Xinhua Dictionary of Idioms], the Chinese idiom “如魚得水” (rú yú dé shuǐ) originates from the“Biography of Zhuge Liang, Book of Shu” inRecords of the Three Kingdoms(Chen,1999, p.678).The warlord Liu Bei, after successfully recruiting the statesman and renowned military strategist Zhuge Liang, said to his generals, “Having Kongming(Zhuge Liang’s courtesy name) with me is like a fish finding water.” This metaphor indicated that Liu Bei had found an individual whose talents and capabilities were the perfect complement to his own camp.The idiom describes finding someone whose ideas align well with one’s own, or an environment conducive to one’s development.Grammatically, the structure of the idiom is transitive; it can function as a predicate,object, or complement in a sentence, and carries a positive connotation.

According to theCambridge Dictionary, the English idiom “take to something like a duck to water” means to discover when you start to do something for the first time that you have a natural ability to do it.

While both idioms use the analogy of water creatures (fish and duck) to symbolize natural affinity and ease, and carry a positive meaning, they differ in their specific applications, cultural nuances, and contexts in which they are typically used.They also exhibit notable structural differences.Chinese idioms mostly have fixed structures, and the components cannot be arbitrarily replaced or reordered.However, English idioms do not always follow such strict structural constraints and can vary the structure.

The remarkable similarities and differences in the linguistic expressions of different nations are the very manifestations of the charm of languages.

Being Figuratively Cognate

The Chinese idiom “井底之蛙” (jǐng dǐ zhī wā), which originates from “The Floods of Autumn” inZhuangzi, states: “A frog in a well cannot be talked with about the sea,for it is confined to its limited space” (Zhuang, 2008, p.273).It is used metaphorically to describe a person with a narrow perspective and limited insight.Grammatically, this idiom has a modifier-head structure; it can function as a subject, object, or attributive in a sentence, and carries a derogatory connotation.

In China, the idiom “井底之蛙” (jǐng dǐ zhī wā), or “frog in the well,” is widely known.Even overseas, this concept is fairly understood, although it is not technically an idiom in other languages.In fact, there are many Chinese and English idioms entering into each other’s languages as cultural exchanges continue.This reflects the growing interconnectedness between Eastern and Western cultures.Such idioms often carry both linguistic meaning and cultural significance, providing insights into the values,beliefs, and historical experiences of their respective societies.As global communication expands, the exchange of these idiomatic expressions enriches both languages, offering users a broader range of expressions to articulate their thoughts and experiences more precisely and colorfully.

From the perspective of enhancing China’s international communication capabilities,the increasing number of Chinese idioms in global discourse is a testament to the growing influence of Chinese language and culture on the world stage.By showcasing the richness and depth of Chinese idioms, China can foster greater cultural appreciation and dialogue.

International Chinese language education can play a pivotal role in this endeavor.By integrating Chinese idiomatic expressions into language education programs, China can enhance global awareness of its language and culture.Furthermore, creating bilingual or multilingual resources that explain the historical and cultural contexts of these idioms can bridge cultural gaps and promote mutual understanding.

The above analysis shows that idiomatic equivalence to some extent does exist between Chinese and English despite the vast differences between the two.We should give full play to this linguistic marvel (i.e., idiomatic equivalence) in international Chinese language education.Traditionally, in teaching Chinese as a second language,instruction in idioms is predominantly offered to higher-grade students, with an emphasis on morpheme teaching.Learners are likely to find it challenging to learn and use Chinese idioms correctly.Given this, we can help those learners meet the challenge and avoid errors by starting with Chinese idioms that have English equivalents.This approach will also increase the cultural value of instruction in idioms and thereby contribute to the international dissemination of Chinese culture, which is the ultimate objective of this study.

Conclusion

International Chinese language education helps promote the international dissemination of Chinese culture and well adapts time-honored cultural traditions to contemporary context.In June 2014, during the International Conference on Language organized by the People’s Republic of China in partnership with UNESCO, theSuzhou Conclusionswas reached.It acknowledged:

Language is the carrier of human civilization and the key to mutual understanding.It is also a bond cementing exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations.As a major historical force, language is critical to the fulfillment of individual potential, as well as the attainment of internationally agreed development goals beyond 2015.Language ability is essential to cultural vitality, cognitive development, social progress and economic prosperity.

Language carries forward traditional culture and facilitates the exchange of ideas between China and the world.It transcends the cultural barriers to mutual learning and understanding, thus highlighting national strength.Today’s world is characterized by economic globalization and cultural diversity.Against such a backdrop, international Chinese language education, which is tasked with introducing the Chinese language and culture to the world, faces unprecedented opportunities and challenges.At a critical historical juncture, we must shape global narratives for telling China’s stories well.The fulfillment of this mission requires inheritance, innovation, and wisdom.Friendship, which derives from close contact between the people, holds the key to sound state-to-state relations.Only through language, can cultural exchanges and mutual learning between civilizations be truly carried out.To promote the profound implications and unique charm of Chinese culture, we need to communicate in a globally recognized way and establish a multi-layered, multi-dimensional,comprehensive strategy for international dissemination.By doing so, we can expect to popularize Chinese wisdom and Chinese solutions worldwide, seek common ground with other cultures, and engage China in global cooperation.It is our due responsibility and historical mission to spread the Chinese language and culture through international Chinese language education.

In this sense, idioms, as a common carrier of language and culture, should play a more important role in international Chinese language education to better promote the international dissemination of Chinese culture.On this premise, we should appropriately supplement and revise the syllabus and textbooks of international Chinese language education, and accordingly enlarge and revise theStandardsto highlight its significance to international Chinese language education.From the theoretical perspectives of equivalence, cognitive metaphor, and second language acquisition, this paper analyzed idioms to be added to the vocabulary and textbooks of international Chinese language education in three dimensions: word frequency, semantic transparency, and functional equivalence.The aim is to explore a new approach to the international dissemination of Chinese culture through instruction in idioms in international Chinese language education.We can help learners of Chinese as a second language master Chinese idioms more easily and efficiently and appreciate the charm of those seemingly obscure idioms only by implementing rigorous standards for selecting teaching materials and applying rational guidelines for teaching.In this way, international Chinese language education can unleash its immense potential.It is noteworthy that this analysis, which combined qualitative and quantitative data, only covered a limited number of Chinese and English idioms.The relevant criteria for idiom selection and inclusion, the new teaching materials, and the new methods still need to be tested and improved in practice.We should continue to expand the breadth and depth of research on the vocabulary of international Chinese language education.More specifically, we should explore how to match more Chinese words with their foreign equivalents for learners from different countries and cultural backgrounds.We should also develop dynamic country-specific word lists and vocabulary teaching platforms to facilitate multilingual mastery for cultural exchanges.Our effort will contribute to the shaping of global narratives for telling China’s stories well to further promote the international dissemination of Chinese culture.