A Study of the Reception of theLaozi under the Materialist Cognitive Paradigm?

Lu Yongsheng

Abstract:From the perspective of the unity of historical interpretations and hermeneutic method,the tradition of Chinese philosophy did not see a complete break in the twentieth century but manifested itself in various hermeneutic discourses.Among these,the materialist cognitive paradigm is an important hermeneutic method which takes the content,standpoint,and structure of materialist dialectics as its standard and frame of reference.Settin g out from this position,many scholars interpret the notion of “straight words seeming to be their opposite” as essential to explaining the dialectical thought of theLaozi.However,if used excessively,this paradigm can have an adverse eff ect on understanding the content,meaning,and structure of theLaozi.This is because Laozi’s philosophy and Marxism are basically diff erent in what they address,and the materialist cognitive paradigm ignores the peculiarity of the concept ofdao.Therefore,a correct understanding and interpretation of theLaozi requires properly handling the relations between different cognitive paradigms from a perspective based on a traditional Chinese philosophical paradigm.One attempt in this regard is to interpret “straight words seeming to be their opposite” in terms of “words not exhausting ideas” and “teaching without words.” This attempt can also be of assistance in reexamining today’s hermeneutic paradigms and the thoughts behind them in the context of constructing cultural self-conf idence.

Keywords:materialist cognitive paradigm,Laozi,straight words seem to be their opposite,hermeneutic method

With the spread and development of Marxism in China,an increasing number of scholars began to interpret traditional Chinese philosophy through a materialist cognitive paradigm.This trend was especially noticeable in studies on Daoism and Confucianism,the two major philosophical schools of which Laozi and Confucius respectively were the leading exponents.The notion that “straight words seem to be their opposite” (zheng yan ruo fan正言若反)1Laozi,chap.78.The English translations of theLaozi are based on Chan Wing-tsit’s version,with some alterations.is central to Laozi’s philosophy,and holds the key to unraveling its secrets;therefore,a number of Marxists studying theLaoziin the twentieth century were concerned with this proposition,and gave it diff erent interpretations,thus shedding light on Laozi’s intricate and profound philosophical system.Nevertheless,a better interpretation might be made from a perspective more typical of traditional Chinese thinking,namely,the notions of “words not exhausting ideas” and “teaching without words.” This new perspective can not only help people to reexamine the reception of theLaoziand clarify the concept of research methodology under the materialist cognitive paradigm,but also has important significance and real-world implications for the strengthening of theoretical and cultural self-conf idence in contemporary China.

The Validity and Limitations of Interpreting ‘Straight Words Seeming to Be Their Opposite’ under the Materialist Cognitive Paradigm[Refer to page 48 for Chinese.Similarly hereinaft er]

In theLaozi,“Straight words seeming to be their opposite” is not merely a specific proposition;it ref lects the mode of expression in the discussion ofdao道 (the Way),and can reveal the right way to understand theLaozi.It can be said,therefore,that “straight words seem to be their opposite” is representative of many other propositions in theLaozi,and is a typical expression of Laozi’s philosophy.At present,there are three main approaches to the interpretation of this remark in scholarly circles.First,the remark is interpreted as expressing dialectical logic,with Professor Sun Zhongyuan 孫中原 being a leading exponent of this theory.2See Sun Zhongyuan 孫中原,“‘Words Seem to Be Their Opposite’:On Laozi’s Dialectical Logic” [正言若反——論老子的辯證邏輯],Henan Social Sciences [河南社會(huì)科學(xué)],no.4 (2008):1—4.Second,it is interpreted in terms of the notions of “words not exhausting ideas” and “teaching without words.” Third,it is regarded as a rhetorical device,a view proposed by Qian Zhongshu 錢(qián)鍾書(shū) (1910—1998).3See Qian Zhongshu 錢(qián)鍾書(shū),Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters [管錐編],book 2 (Beijing:SDX Joint Publishing Company,2007),120.The three approaches are the result of different hermeneutic methods.Broadly speaking,the “dialectical logic”approach remains the mainstream and is a central issue in today’s academic research since importance is currently attached to presenting the uniqueness of Chinese culture,and to the combination of the basic principles of Marxism and the excellent parts of traditional Chinese culture.

The Validity of Interpretation under the Materialist Cognitive Paradigm[48]

An examination of the spread of Marxism in China over the past century shows that,from the very beginning,materialism was brought in by Chinese scholars as a methodology to resolve the existing problems in Chinese society.Among the early promoters of Marxism were Li Dazhao 李大釗 (1889—1927) and Yun Daiying 惲代英 (1895—1931).Li held that “historical materialism is a sociological law,”4Li Dazhao 李大釗,“Historical Materialism and Its Signif icance in Modern Historical Studies” [唯物史觀(guān)在現(xiàn)代史學(xué)上的價(jià)值], New Youth [新青年],no.4 (1920).while Yun believed that “historical materialism is simply an ordinary research methodology for examining or studying history in materialist terms.”5Yun Daiying 揮代英,“Historical Materialism and the National Revolution” [唯物史觀(guān)與國(guó)民革命],in The Struggle of Materialism and Historical Materialism against Historical Idealism I [唯物論和唯物史觀(guān)反對(duì)唯心史觀(guān)的斗爭(zhēng)（上）],book 8 in vol.1 of Collected Materials of the History of Contemporary Chinese Philosophy [中國(guó)現(xiàn)代哲學(xué)史資料匯編],eds.Zhong Limeng 鐘離蒙 and Yang Fengli 楊鳳離 (Shenyang:Department of Philosophy at Liaoning University,1981),157.As a research methodology,the materialist cognitive paradigm was applied to the study of Chinese philosophy,and alongside the development of Marxism in China,the paradigm underwent a process of development,becoming more profound and comprehensive.It f illed Chinese scholars’ need for new research methodologies,and shed new light on the doctrines,features,and value of traditional Chinese philosophy from a materialist perspective.As a consequence,it opened up new possibilities for research on traditional Chinese philosophy,and enriched the content and methodologies of Chinese philosophy.It can even be said to have become the basic thought pattern underlying the study of the concepts,propositions,and systems of traditional Chinese philosophy.

Daois a central concept in Laozi’s philosophy,and as such was the f irst to be placed under the scrutiny of the materialist cognitive paradigm.Yan Khinshun 楊興順 (1904—1989),a sinologist from the Soviet Union,was the f irst to interpretdaoin materialist terms.He thought thatdaostands for both the material basis of the myriad things and the natural laws of the objective world.6Quoted from Li Chenggui 李承貴,Tradition of Creation and Recreation:A Study of the Epistemological Paradigms of Traditional Chinese Philosophy in the Twentieth Century [生生的傳統(tǒng)——20世紀(jì)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)哲學(xué)認(rèn)知范式研究](Beijing:China Social Sciences Press,2018),89.This theory was supported by Yang Chao 楊超 (1911—2007)who claimed thatdaohas two basic meanings:f irst,daois the universal and all-pervading substance;and second,daois a universal and eternal natural law.As a substance,daois material;as a natural law,daois objective.7See Yang Chao 楊超,“The Materialist Nature of Laozi’s Philosophy” [老子哲學(xué)的唯物主義本質(zhì)],Philosophical Research [哲學(xué)研究],no.4 (1955):135—138.Hou Wailu 侯外廬 (1903—1987) thought that the termdaois used in theLaoziin three senses:in the sense of “being alongside everything,” in the sense of “being opposed to the nature of everything,” and in the sense of “being prior to the existence of matter and moving in the opposite direction as matter.”In Hou’s opinion,daoused in the third sense is the core meaning of theLaozi;indeed,onlydao“seeming to have existed before the Lord [as a substanceless image]” and functioning as“the ancestor of the myriad things” (Laozi,chap.4) can meet the requirements of the na?ve materialist ontology.8Hou Wailu 侯外廬,Zhao Jibin 趙紀(jì)彬,and Du Guoxiang 杜國(guó)庠,A General History of Chinese Thought [中國(guó)思想通史],vol.1 (Beijing:People’s Publishing House,1957),267—268.Zhang Dainian 張岱年 (1909—2004) thought that sincedaohas no shape,it cannot be perceived;however,because there are images and things indaoit can be deduced thatdaois objective and real.In a word,daois a unity of the material and the spiritual.Zhang also noted that the concept ofziran自然 (spontaneity),which is closely related todao,is essentially a refutation of the notions of “the mandate of Heaven” and“the will of Heaven”;because Laozi’s thought rejects the idea of a supreme ruler above,it is supposedly materialist.9See Zhang Dainian 張岱年,The Complete Works of Zhang Dainian [張岱年全集],vol.7 (Shijiazhuang:Hebei People’s Publishing House,1996),180—182.Ren Jiyu 任繼愈 (1916—2009) also held that Laozi’s philosophy is a form of materialism.Ren asserted that “Laozi’sdaomeans both matter and the way along which matter undergoes transformation.”10See Ren Jiyu 任繼愈,“On the Materialist Nature of Laozi’s Philosophy:Also a Reply to Guan Feng and Lin Yushi”[論老子哲學(xué)的唯物主義本質(zhì)——兼答關(guān)鋒、林聿時(shí)同志],Philosophical Research,no.7 (1959):23—33.Moreover,he further expounded this theory through historical and class analyses.Generally speaking,the controversy over whether Laozi’s philosophy is materialism or idealism is concentrated on a series of issues,including the relationship betweendaoon the one hand andxuan玄 (darkness and profundity) andyi一 (oneness) on the other,the def initions ofwuming無(wú)名 (the nameless) andyouming有名 (the named),the materiality and spirituality ofdao,as well as the relationship betweendaoandde德(virtue).Judgments have been made mainly from the materialist point of view that matter is primary and consciousness secondary.

Interestingly,despite the arguments on both sides,there is a consensus that theLaoziabounds in dialectical thought,albeit naive and undeveloped.Ren Jiyu even considered Laozi to be the f irst philosopher in the world to self-consciously propose dialectics and naive materialism.11Quoted from Yang Liuqiao 楊柳橋,“Is Laozi’s Philosophy Materialism?” [老子的哲學(xué)是唯物主義的嗎？],Philosophical Research,no.4 (1955):144—148.Li Shicen 李石岑 (1892—1934) summarized Daoist dialectics in terms of three aspects:f irst,daois constantly in motion;second,reversion fosters action;and third,daoentails walking on two roads simultaneously.Especially commendable in Daoism is the skillful use of dialectics to observe the universe,the natural world,as well as human society,and the integration of the outlook on the universe,epistemology,and dialectics into a coherent whole.12See Li Shicen 李石岑,Ten Lectures on Chinese Philosophy [中國(guó)哲學(xué)十講](Guilin:Guangxi Normal University Press,2010),113—121,128.Applying the materialist cognitive paradigm,Cao Deben 曹德本 explored the dialectical thought in Laozi’s philosophy,and derived from it a complete dialectical system (including views on relations,development,and contradiction),proposing theories including a theory of interdependence,a theory of inter-complementarity,a theory of change,and a theory of reversion.13See Cao Deben 曹德本,An Exploration into Ancient Chinese Dialectics [中國(guó)古代辯證法思想探索](Changchun:Jilin People’s Publishing House,1986).Fang Ke 方克 (1918—2009) thought that dialectics is the positive and reasonable part of theLaozi’s metaphysics,and that although its dialectical thought is undeveloped and has its limitations,it is nevertheless rich and profound.14See Fang Ke 方克,“A Brief Discussion on the Idealist Dialectics of theLaozi” [略論《老子》的唯心主義辯證法],Social Sciences Journal of Xiangtan University [湘潭大學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)],no.1 (1983):32—37,71.Zhu Yiting 朱貽庭 argued that Laozi’s undeveloped dialectics f inds its main expression in the idea that opposites complement each other and are on the way to transforming into each other.The termfan反 appears four times in theLaozi:in chapter 25,fanmeans reversion(fan返),or rather,a reversion to the original state,while in the other three cases,fanmeans opposite or the opposite side.15See Zhu Yiting 朱貽庭,“On the Undeveloped Dialectics in theLaozi” [論《老子》的樸素辯證法思想], Journal of Liaoning University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) [遼寧大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)（哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版）],no.1 (1979):54—61.“Straight words seeming to be their opposite” in chapter 72 can also be analyzed and understood in dialectical terms.According to Sun Zhongyuan,the notion means “a positive statement contains within it negative elements,”16Sun Zhongyuan,“The Principle of the Undeveloped Dialectical Thought of ‘Straight Words Seeming to Be Their Opposite’ in theLaozi” [《老子》中“正言若反”的樸素辯證思維原則],Academic Journal of Zhongzhou [中州學(xué)刊],no.3 (1981):78—81.and is expressive of the interdependence,interconnection,and inter-transformation of opposites in materialist dialectics.Besides,viewed from the perspective of materialist dialectics,theLaozicontains many sentences and expressions that are in the same vein as “straight words seeming to be their opposite.”

In sum,as Chinese scholars applied the materialist cognitive paradigm to the comprehension of Laozi’s philosophy,they not only casted new light on its concepts and propositions but also intended to reform,reevaluate,and improve it.Seen through the lens of Marxism,Laozi’s philosophy can be divided into four parts,namely,materialism,dialectics,epistemology,and a conception of history;against this backdrop,scholars criticize and refute any ideas in theLaozithat go against the materialist cognitive paradigm.Consequently,research on Laozi’s philosophy has seen a big advance in the direction of materialism,and concurrently,due to the wide use of historical and class analyses,a thorough examination has been given to the class situation and historical conditions of Laozi’s time,with a well-reasoned materialist account of the emergence and development of Laozi’s philosophy.Especially worthy of attention is the study of the dialectical thought embodied in “straight words seeming to be their opposite.” This study enhances the philosophical significance of Laozi’s system,and breaks new ground for theoretical exploration.Today as the promotion of the sinicization of Marxism is underway,it is necessary and important to apply the materialist cognitive paradigm to make Marxism more integrated into traditional Chinese philosophy,and to enrich and improve the latter’s content,styles,and qualities so as to facilitate its contemporary transformation.

The Limitations of the Interpretation under the Materialist Cognitive Paradigm[50]

From the perspective of Marxist philosophy,materialist dialectics serves as an important frame of reference,and even as a norm.It has been applied progressively to the analysis of the intrinsic qualities,features,and structure of Laozi’s dialectics.Especially noteworthy in this regard is the interpretation of “straight words seeming to be their opposite” as expressing the notions of things undergoing constant motion and change,and of opposites forming a unity and transforming into one another.However,if the philosophical system of Laozi is taken into consideration as a whole,it can be seen that this kind of interpretation has its limitations and is not f lawless.

First,with regard to the meaning of “straight words seeming to be their opposite,”although the materialist cognitive paradigm brings to light the dialectical logic embodied in the remark,it is oblivious of the other important content that it contains.In fact,apart from the notion of the opposites acting and transforming into one another,the remark is rich in humanistic concern.Laozi believes that if a ruler wants to maintain his rule and build a strong and wealthy country and populace,he should rule through non-action.The ruler“does not compete” so “the world cannot compete with him” (chap.22),and the ruler “has no personal interests,” so “his personal interests are fulf illed” (chap.7).These ideas show the very source of the notion of “straight words seeming to be their opposite”:daoneither seeks to control nor interferes with the growth of the myriad things.In a more important sense,having seen the corruption and decadence of the rulers of his time,the tragic scenes of blood-thirsty wars,and the dire situation of oppressed people,Laozi was exhorting rulers to be loving and benevolent in their governance,and to purify their hearts and abandon excessive desires.Therefore,beneath “straight words seeming to be their opposite” lies Laozi’s deep humanistic concern with the country and its people,and his strong sense of responsibility and commitment to redress wrongs.

Second,with regard to the meaning of the remark,materialist dialectics views it as expressive of Laozi’s undeveloped dialectics,and loses sight of the fact that the remark is also expressive of the uniqueness ofdao.Daolies at the center of Laozi’s philosophy,and “straight words seeming to be their opposite” is ultimately based on and derived fromdao.Laozi’sdaois manifestly peculiar and transcends common sense,so it can only be expressed in a paradoxical way for people to understand.Therefore,“straight words seeming to be their opposite” not only illustrates Laozi’s undeveloped dialectics,but and in a more important sense also provides an ideal vehicle for common people to gain a thorough comprehension ofdao.

Third,with regard to the structural position of the remark,Laozi’s dialectics under the materialist cognitive paradigm functions as a part of his philosophical system,but is separate from other parts.The materialist cognitive paradigm is more focused on issues such as the origin of the myriad things,being materialist or idealist,motion and contradiction,and existence and process.Under this paradigm,research is done with Marxism,especially materialist dialectics,as the frame of reference.Although this approach is instrumental to revealing Laozi’s dialectics,it cuts off its connection with the rest of his thought.At the core of Laozi’s philosophy isdaoas an origin,around which is developed a large and complex system incorporating Heaven,Earth,and humanity,and dealing with a wide variety of subjects ranging from nature to human culture,from the metaphysical to the physical,and from substance to function.Needless to say,an undeveloped dialectics is a part of this system,but it also contains others such as a cosmology,a view of the Way of Heaven,and a theory of human nature.All these parts are interdependent and interconnected,forming a whole that cannot be divided.The materialist cognitive paradigm threatens the organic unity of Laozi’s philosophy by isolating one component from the others,and thus risks ignoring other ideas of Laozi which may turn out to be more important and valuable.

Beyond the Materialist Discourse:‘Straight Words Seem to BeTheir Opposite’ under a Traditional Chinese Philosophical Paradigm[51]

The trend to interpret traditional Chinese culture through a Marxist discourse has had a profound inf luence on the way to contemplate and analyze traditional Chinese philosophy.As Professor Li Chenggui 李承貴 puts it,“the materialist cognitive paradigm” has become“the set pattern for conducting research on the history of Chinese philosophy,” with the whole body of research divided,consciously or unconsciously,into four major parts,namely,materialism,dialectics,epistemology,and a conception of history.17See Li Chenggui,“The Formation of the Materialist Cognitive Paradigm and a Critical Examination of It as a Traditional Chinese Philosophical Methodology” [唯物主義認(rèn)知范式的形成與檢討——以作為中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)哲學(xué)研究方法為中心],Hebei Academic Journal [河北學(xué)刊],no.1 (2013):27—34.However,to regard the materialist approach as the only viable way of interpretation and apply it dogmatically to research on Laozi’s philosophy results only in narrow-mindedness and one-sidedness.The underlying reason is that Laozi’s philosophy and Marxism deal with diff erent research f ields,and some researchers of Laozi fail to appreciate the unique qualities ofdao.Therefore,a thorough understanding of the philosophical meaning of “straight words seeming to be their opposite” requires first of all the adoption of a paradigm of traditional Chinese thought.If researchers approach the remark from a perspective inherent to the tradition and history of Chinese philosophy,and interpret the remark through the notions of “words not exhausting ideas” and “teaching without words,” they may gain a better understanding of the value and status of Laozi’s philosophy.

Laozi’s Philosophy beyond Matter and Practice[52]

The theoretical foundation for materialist dialectics is the real world and practice.Karl Marx’s theories were based on production and life in a material world.Practice is the bridge across as well as the link between the real world and the realm of thought.Laozi was also concerned with life and practice.Daois the foundation of Laozi’s philosophical system,and has multiple meanings.First,daois a substance.Althoughdaocannot be perceived or grasped,it is not empty or devoid of content,and even generates,pervades,and nourishes the myriad things.Second,daois a law.“Reversion is the action ofdao” (chap.40).Daodenotes the action of things which are in a continuous process of transforming into their opposite.Since this is a cyclical process,whatever changes things undertake,they will ultimately return to where they f irst came into being.Third,daois virtue.Daoacts through non-action,does not compete,and follows behind;daomeanskindness,frugality,and simplicity.The metaphysicaldaois actualized throughqi氣 (material force),functions in human life,and becomes virtue.Laozi says,“All things arise,and he does not turn away from them.He produces them,but does not take possession of them./He acts,but does not rely on his own ability./He accomplishes his task,but does not claim credit for it” (chap.2).Therefore,a sage acts through non-action:“Do not exalt the worthy,so that people shall not compete./Do not value the rare treasures,so that people shall not steal./Do not display objects of desire,so that the people’s hearts shall not be disturbed” (chap.3).Only when there is good governance can society progress well.As can be seen,although Laozi’s philosophy contains thoughts exploring the nature of the universe,it is essentially oriented toward the real world and people’s lives.Laozi advocates ruling through non-action,exhorts rulers to purify their minds and abandon excessive desires,and envisions a society where the common people feel contented and happy with a plain and simple lifestyle.Thus Laozi’s philosophy,like other schools of thought at his time,is concerned with life and practice.

However,Laozi’s philosophy is not confined to the realities of practical living.It contains other thoughts worthy of attention,including a cosmology (“daogenerates the myriad things”),a view of the Way of Heaven (“daomodels itself on spontaneity”),and a theory of human nature (“simplicity and spontaneity”).Laozi says,“Daoproduced the One (yi一)./The One produced the two./The two produced the three./And the three produced the myriad things” (chap.42).These words provide an important Daoist description of the creation of the world.They tell of the metaphysicaldaocarrying out its functions continuously in the physical world,from the emergence of the One to the generation of the myriad things.Equally important,Laozi says,“Man models himself aft er Earth./Earth models itself aft er Heaven./Heaven models itself aft erdao./Anddaomodels itself on spontaneity” (chap.25).Here,there are four great things in the universe:humanity,Earth,Heaven,anddao.Of the four,each takes the one immediately aft er as its model,with spontaneity as the ultimate principle.“Daomodeling itself on spontaneity” is the essence of Laozi’s view on the relationship between Heaven and humanity.It explains how everything should follow the course set by its nature instead of striving and acting against its nature,such as making deliberate changes or interventions.“Daomodeling itself on spontaneity”entails that ultimately “man modeling himself on spontaneity.” How? By “supporting all things in their natural state but not taking any action” (chap.64).People should follow their own nature,and respect the natural state of things,allowing them to grow and develop of their own accord and not forcing them to grow or intervening in their growth.In this way,they are able to return to the state of a newborn,innocent,and indiscriminate,unsullied by knowledge or desire.This state is closer todao.

In short,Laozi’s philosophy is a large system.It is constructed on the basis ofdao,and incorporates Heaven,Earth,and humanity.It honors spontaneity,and commends nonaction.This system far transcends the f ield of materialist dialectics which is focused on the practical realities of life and the actual world.To put it another way,it can be said that the discussion of living forms a small part of Laozi’s philosophical system as a whole,and deals with only the function ofdaoin the physical world.

The Theoretical Characteristics of ‘Words Not Exhausting Ideas’ and ‘Teaching without Words’[53]

“Teaching without words” appears in chapter 2 of theLaozi:“Therefore the sage manages affairs through non-action,and teaches without words.” There are two interpretations of the phrase “without words.” First,it means that the sage teaches not by giving orders or instructions.Second,it means that the sage’s doctrines cannot be expressed in words,because thedaothat can be told of is not the eternaldao.“Teaching without words”expresses the idea that Laozi’sdaois so deep and profound that it cannot be thoroughly depicted by language.Diff erent from the approach of dialectical logic,the interpretation of“straight words seeming to be their opposite” understood in terms of the notions of “words not exhausting ideas” and “teaching without words” shows that it is merely an expediency to discussdaoin words.The eternaldaocan only be expressed and explained in a way that deviates from what common people hold to be true and sensible.

Summarizing the relationship betweendaoandyan言 (language or words),theLaozisays in its opening chapter:“Thedaothat can be told of is not the eternaldao.The name that can be named is not the eternal name.” The really existing metaphysicaldaocan neither be told of nor named.Thatdaocannot be told of is due to its very vague form of existence,meaning that it cannot be perceived,nor can it be grasped intellectually,let alone named.Laozi admits,“I do not know its name;/Hence,when forced to name it,I call itdao” (chap.25),therefore this name is necessarily inadequate and incomplete.Daois deep and profound,undiff erentiated yet complete,and vague and elusive,qualities which show that the eternaldaocannot be expressed or described in words.Besides,language has certain limitations.That words do not exhaust ideas,“does not mean that words cannot express thoughts,ideas,or emotions,but that words cannot express them completely and thoroughly.”18Zhang Songhui 張松輝,An Annotated Translation and Explication of the Laozi [老子譯注與解析](Changsha:Yuelu Press,2008),3.In his discussions ofdao,Laozi is often faced with the dilemma of language being unable to express exactly what he wishes to say aboutdao.The eternaldaocannot be told of,yet since Laozi intends to give people a thorough understanding ofdao,he has no choice but to use language,and is forced to express the inexpressible.It is in this sense that a paradoxical mode of discourse,best summarized by “straight words seeming to be their opposite,” is adopted,and it serves as a bridge leading people to learn aboutdao.For example,

What is most straight seems to be crooked.

The greatest skills seem to be clumsy.

The greatest eloquence seems to stutter.

(Chap.45)

To yield is to be preserved whole.

To be bent is to become straight.

To be empty is to be full.

To be worn out is to be renewed.

To have little is to possess.

To have plenty is to be perplexed.

(Chap.22)

Laozi exalts words associated with negativity,such as “clumsy,” “empty,” “worn out,”and “l(fā)ittle,” and often advocates not striving,not competing,and being soft and weak.His purpose is to illustrate the profound signif icance of spontaneity,non-action,and not speaking,as well as the fact thatdaois entirely diff erent from ordinary thoughts.

Mutual Learning between Chinese Philosophy and Marxism:Hermeneutic Paradigms,Transformation of Tradition,and Cultural Conf idence[54]

In the academic history of modern China,it has been a basic mode to understand and interpret traditional Chinese philosophy in terms of Western philosophical ideas,concepts,methods,and structures.This mode,in its long period of gestation and development,has made solid academic achievements,contributing substantially to the construction of the discipline of Chinese philosophy,reorganizing traditional Chinese philosophical thought,and revealing some of the characteristics and value of Chinese philosophy.However,in recent years,this mode has met with increasing skepticism and criticism,and been dubbed“using the Western to interpret the Chinese” or “reverse analogical interpretation.” A number of scholars have contended that Chinese philosophical discourse has been infested with the thought pattern of interpreting Chinese philosophy in Western or Marxist terms,and that as a consequence,Chinese philosophy has lost its unique features,and become inferior to and tied to Western philosophy.Undoubtedly,the materialist cognitive paradigm based on rationalism and the conception of atomic individuals has enriched the interpretation of traditional Chinese philosophy,and assisted in the development of Chinese philosophical systems.However,its side-eff ects cannot be overlooked,in particular the obscuring of the true image of Chinese philosophy and the distortion of Chinese philosophical doctrines.Approaching Laozi’s philosophy with the materialist cognitive paradigm (dialectical logic) means that what matters is not Laozi’s philosophical ideas but the ideas and intentions of the interpreters.Laozi’sdaohas often been exploited by interpreters,and become a means to serve different ends,betraying,to a certain extent,the original meaning and true spirit ofdao.Any system derived from this kind of research thus differs from Laozi’s real philosophical system.In the long run,the inherent spirit and doctrines of Chinese philosophy might be forgotten,and the unique features and advantages of the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture would then be subjected to a certain degree of distortion.

It should be noted that being critical of the materialistic cognitive paradigm does not mean abandoning or denouncing the method of interpreting traditional Chinese philosophy in Western terms.There is no denying the fact that re-examining traditional Chinese philosophy with recourse to Western concepts and systems is of great signif icance.It facilitates the systematization of Chinese philosophical ideas,enriches the content of Chinese philosophy,and gives rise to more fresh interpretations.In fact,the crux of the matter is how one should learn from and apply the materialist cognitive paradigm after having gained a thorough understanding of the development of Chinese philosophy,including its social background,history,doctrines and beliefs,as well as linguistic features,and without losing sight of the traditional hermeneutic paradigms of Chinese philosophy.

Finally,how should we understand “straight words seeming to be their opposite”?First,it is essential to f ind out the original meaning of Laozi’sdaoand discern its features becausedaois at the core of Laozi’s philosophy and serves as the basis from which Laozi’s other ideas and theories are developed.Sincedaocannot be told of and language has its own limitations,Laozi had to adopt a paradoxical mode of expression to discussdao,a way which is captured by “straight words seeming to be their opposite.” Although this mode of expression seems obscure and even ridiculous,it indeed gives common people an opportunity to understand the meaning and spirit ofdao.Second,Laozi lived in an age of violence and chaos,and had witnessed wars,conf licts,and tyrannical governments inflicting great pain and misery on the common people.To protest against the incessant warfare and the exploitation and oppression of the common people,Laozi held that “by acting without action,all things will be in order” (Laozi,chap.3),and that “it is precisely because [the sage]does not compete that the world cannot compete with him” (chap.22).Therefore,“straight words seeming to be their opposite” not only embodies the spirit of the notion of “daomodeling itself on spontaneity” but also plays the important role of remonstrating with rulers and urging them to respect and love the people.As can be seen from the discussion above,the interpretation of “straight words seeming to be their opposite”from the inherent perspective of Laozi’s philosophy,taking into consideration the age in which Laozi lived,the unique meaning and characteristics ofdao,and especially the notions of “words not exhausting ideas” and “teaching without words,” has important theoretical and methodological implications for exploring Laozi’s profound thought.

In the new age,there is growing awareness of the importance of strengthening cultural self-conf idence,and against this background,reexamining the interpretation of theLaoziunder the materialist cognitive paradigm can be of great benef it.

First,the materialist cognitive paradigm demonstrates the continuity of Chinese cultural traditions.The emphasis on the rejuvenation of Chinese culture and the call to strengthen cultural self-conf idence at present mean that the reception of Chinese culture in Marxist terms during the twentieth century cannot be slighted;in fact,it should be given more attention because it shows how the materialist cognitive paradigm has inf iltrated and f it into the modern Chinese academic system and how the paradigm met the needs of the development of Chinese culture.To strengthen self-conf idence in Chinese culture requires first to clarify the development of Chinese culture.The materialist cognitive approach is a thread running through the exploration and inheritance of the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture.The Marxist cognitive paradigm does not betoken a broken link;to a certain extent,it serves to revise the cultural mentality of the Chinese people,and enhance the vitality of Chinese culture.

Second,the materialist cognitive paradigm sheds more light on the role that hermeneutic methods play in the contemporary transformation of traditional Chinese culture.The interpretation of theLaoziunder the materialist cognitive paradigm reflects the interaction between Marxism and traditional Chinese culture;it also helps to illustrate the relationship between diff erent hermeneutic methods and the generation of meaning,as well as the interaction between various diff erent cultures,taking into account factors such as cultural positions,political factors,and shift s in theoretical discourse.These experiences and lessons are worth pondering because they are important to the creative transformation and innovative development of traditional Chinese culture at present.Today in China,the development of Chinese culture should be China-based,with its focus on the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,and an emphasis on Chinese characteristics.In fact,the latter two aspects imply that there are other existing cultures and other standards by which to appraise traditional culture.About a hundred years after the first encounter between the Marxist cognitive paradigm and traditional Chinese culture,today the combination of the basic principles of Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture has been proposed again.This teaches people two important lessons.First,the combination of the basic principles of Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture in the twentieth century was neither complete nor adequate.Second,the development of Chinese culture in the new age should follow a more reasonable path.

Third,the materialist cognitive paradigm enriches the discourse system for strengthening cultural self-conf idence.The relationship between the materialist cognitive paradigm and traditional Chinese culture in the twentieth century has undergone an important change in the new age.The basic principles of Marxism are no longer viewed only as a hermeneutic paradigm;instead,they function as a kind of culture,a philosophy,and a form of spirit to participate in the strengthening of cultural self-conf idence in China.In addition,the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture are strictly delimited,no longer meaning “traditional culture” in the broad sense of the term.The combination of the basic principles of Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture plays an important role in building a culturally advanced country,and will continuously create new forms of Chinese culture,enrich its discourse system,and improve cultural practices to fulf ill the goal of strengthening our self-conf idence in Chinese culture.

Bibliography of Cited Translations

Chan,Wing-tsit,trans.and comp.“The Natural Way of Lao Tzu.” Chap.7 inA Source Book in Chinese Philosophy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1963.