How to Adapt Marxism to the Excellent Aspects of Traditional Chinese Culture?

Hao Lixin

Over the past century,Chinese culture has been profoundly inf luenced by the spread and development of Marxism in China.Meanwhile,Marxism in China has also been nourished by the soil of traditional culture.The adaption of Marxism to traditional Chinese culture has shift ed from unconscious to conscious adaptation and from shallow to deep adaption.There are two aspects to this process.One is the gradual localization of Marxism after its introduction from abroad and dissemination in China,which shows that its initial adaption to traditional Chinese culture was mainly a form of nationalization.The other is the Marxism adapted to the Chinese context,having become an intrinsic part of Chinese culture and manifesting a further integration in both form and content.The major concept of adapting the basic tenets of Marxism to the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,as def ined by General Secretary Xi Jinping in his speech at the ceremony marking the centenary of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and by the Resolution of the CPC Central Committee on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century,fully expresses the theoretical consciousness and cultural self-confidence of the Chinese Communists and shows that China’s understanding of the relationship between Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture has reached a new height.

The issue of adapting Marxism to the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture should be understood in the context of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and diversifying Chinese civilization as a whole,taking into consideration the relationship between tradition and modernity and between China and the world.In the context of the New Era of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and China’s new journey toward modernization,it is a major issue to understand and practice the concept of adapting the basic tenets of Marxism to the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture.

The Cultural Value Orientation of Marxism in Adapting It to the Excellent Aspects of Traditional Chinese Culture[Refer to page 5 for Chinese.Similarly hereinaft er]

In hisA Study of History,Arnold J.Toynbee summarized the development pattern of civilizations or cultures in the world,arguing that every civilization survives and evolves in the mode of challenge and response.1See Arnold J.Toynbee,A Study of History (New York:Oxford University Press,1987).Chinese civilization or culture in modern times has also undergone such a process of development.When China was lagging behind in development,a group of Chinese scholars turned to the West to learn advanced ideas,and in comparing various Western ideas,they found the truth that could save China and its people,namely Marxism.It was historically inevitable for Marxism to spread and develop in China.China’s choice of Marxism is a manifestation of the progress of civilization adapted to the development of Chinese society.The integration of Marxism with Chinese culture is both a process of conjoining with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture and negating the dregs of Chinese feudal culture.While choosing Marxism,China did not abandon its own cultural traditions.This was a conscious cultural response.

Bertrand Russell asserted in his essay “Chinese and Western Civilization Contrasted”in the 1920s:

There is at present in China,as we have seen in previous chapters,a close contact between our civilization and that which is native to the Celestial Empire....Contacts between diff erent civilizations have oft en in the past proved to be landmarks in human progress....In many of these cases,the pupils proved better than their masters.In the case of China,if we regard the Chinese as the pupils,this may be the case again.In fact,we have quite as much to learn from them as they from us,but there is far less chance of our learning it.2Bertrand Russell,“Chinese and Western Civilization Contrasted,” inThe Problem of China (London:George Allen &Unwin,1922),185.

This passage is intriguing.Cultural clashes and exchanges between different peoples and regions have occurred frequently throughout history.Who learns from whom varies in diff erent specif ic historical periods and situations.In the process of learning from Marxism,Chinese people who mastered Marxism consciously adapted Marxism to China’s specif ic reality,history,and culture to form a Chinese Marxism.The thought-provoking questions in the relationship between the two are:What is the vitality and transcendent nature of Chinese culture? How can local Chinese culture meet or even merge with the most advanced ideas of Marxism from the West? Why does Marxism need to be further integrated with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture in the process of its adaption to the Chinese context,and how?

Marxism is an open and developing theoretical system,characterized by its scientif ic,practical,and popular nature,while as a culture it is also open,historical,and concrete.Marxism was a global doctrine or culture from its birth.Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels founded Marxism on the basis of critically absorbing German classical philosophy,British classical political economy,and British and French utopian socialism.They attached great importance to integrating Marxist tenets with the specif ic reality of each country,including the country’s history and culture.Marx and Engels emphasized in the preface to the 1872 German edition of theManifesto of the Communist Partythat,“The practical application of the principles will depend,as theManifesto itself states,everywhere and at all times,on the historical conditions for the time being existing.”3Preface toManifesto of the Communist Party,Marxists Internet Archive,accessed November 28,2021,https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/preface.htm#preface-1872.Vladimir Lenin also stated that,“The categorical requirement of Marxist theory in investigating any social question is that it be examined withindef initehistorical limits,and,if it refers to a particular country(e.g.,the national program for a given country),that account be taken of the specific features distinguishing that country from others in the same historical epoch.”4Vladimir Ilyich Lenin,“The Historically Concrete Presentation of the Question,” chapter 2 ofThe Right of Nations to Self-Determination,trans.Bernard Isaacs and Joe Fineberg,Marxists Internet Archive,accessed November 28,2021,https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/self-det/ch02.htm.Although“culture” is not directly mentioned in these discussions,the “historical conditions,”“historical limits,” “historical epoch,” and “specif ic features” of each country are mentioned,and they all should include the history and culture of each country.

Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture have a high degree of compatibility.The major basis for their integration lies in the great f it between the dialectical approach and values of Marxism and the excellent traits of traditional Chinese culture.

With a unique essence,a deep humanistic heritage,a strong cohesive force,and a high degree of comprehensiveness,traditional Chinese culture is unique among world civilizations and has unlimited implications;it is by no means lacking in philosophical thinking and developmental dynamism,as Georg W.F.Hegel claimed.With a humanistic tradition of virtue and righteousness,traditional Chinese culture advocates the need to renovate and respect the people and maintain harmony between persons.Its profound and rich dialectical thinking advocates the unity of Heaven and Humanity and the unity of knowledge and practice.Traditional Chinese culture encourages loft y ideals,a strong sense of commitment,family values,patriotism,and a sense of national integrity.It also believes it is essential to cultivate morality,manage the family,govern the state well,and ensure that all under Heaven are at peace.Believing that “the people are the foundation of a nation,and a nation can enjoy peace only when its foundation is strong” (Book of History,“Song of Five Children” [五子之歌]),traditional Chinese culture has the idea and political wisdom of valuing the people.It also advocates values such as optimism,as it states that people “should be true in word and resolute in deed” (Analects13:20),and that “as nature thrives through powerful self-regeneration,so must people of virtue ceaselessly strive for self-improvement”and “as earth is generous and peaceful,so must people of virtue embrace the world through virtue” (Book of Changes,“Commentary on the Images” [象傳]).

According to Russell,“The distinctive merit of our civilization,I should say,is the scientific method;the distinctive merit of the Chinese is a just conception of the ends of life.It is these two that one must hope to see gradually uniting.”5Russell,“Chinese and Western Civilization Contrasted,” 194.Although this view is onesided,it does in some sense reveal some of the diff erences and complementarities between ancient Chinese and Western culture.Another statement of Russell is more pertinent:“The natural Chinese attitude is one of tolerance and friendliness,showing courtesy and expecting it in return.If the Chinese chose,they could be the most powerful nation in the world.But they only desire freedom,not domination.”6Ibid.,195.It is because of many excellent qualities,including those mentioned above,that Chinese civilization has the strong vitality that has allowed it to last for thousands of years.

The integration of Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture is consistent with both the actual development of Chinese society and the developmental needs of the Chinese nation,as well as the laws governing the adaption of Marxism to the Chinese context.As Mao Zedong stated,Marxism must be put into practice through a def inite national form.And the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture are of vital importance to the Chinese national form.No matter in which period or era of China’s development,Marxism must be developed in line with the high qualities of traditional Chinese culture,in order to continuously be nourished by it,keep developing and become better adapted to the Chinese context.In addition,only by integrating with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture can Marxism truly make its way to the inner world of the Chinese people and play a better role in guiding Chinese practice.

A Model for Absorbing the Essence of Traditional Chinese Culture to Develop Marxism[7]

In the hundred-year history of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context,it has become an important historical experience to integrate Marxism with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture and absorb the essence of the latter.Mao Zedong Thought and the system of theories of socialism with Chinese characteristics,especially Xi JinpingThought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era,are not only the theories of integrating Marxism with concrete Chinese realities,but also doctrines of integrating Marxism with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture.

Mao Zedong Thought is a good example of integrating Marxism with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture.Mao attached great importance to traditional Chinese culture.His main views on how to treat traditional Chinese culture are as follows.First,the CPC must uphold the Marxist view of history and cherish historical and cultural heritage.As early as 1938,Mao Zedong stated that,“Contemporary China has grown out of the China of the past;we are Marxist in our historical approach and must not lop off our history.We should sum up our history from Confucius to Sun Yat-sen and take over this valuable legacy.”7“The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War,” in vol.II ofSelected Works of Mao Tse-tung,Marxists Internet Archive,accessed November 28,2021,https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selectedworks/volume-2/mswv2_10.htm.Second,it is necessary to distinguish the essence from the dross,and the anti-feudal elements from the feudal elements in traditional Chinese culture.Culture is historically conditioned and has social institutional attributes,and it also has common values that transcend history and social forms.Mao stated,“The millennia-old culture of China is mainly the culture from the feudal era,but it is not entirely feudalistic;it comes from the people and is sometimes anti-feudal.”8Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee,ed.,Collected Works of Mao Zedong [毛澤東文集],vol.8 (Beijing:People’s Publishing House,1991),534.Third,it is necessary to adhere to the national nature of culture.Chinese culture must keep its own national form.The new culture “is national.It opposes imperialist oppression and upholds the dignity and independence of the Chinese nation.”9“On New Democracy,” in vol.II ofSelected Works of Mao Tse-tung,Marxists Internet Archive,accessed November 28,2021,https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_26.htm.Fourth,adapting Marxism to the Chinese context must display salient Chinese features and style.At the S ixth Plenary Session of the Sixth CPC Central Committee held in September 1938,Mao Zedong put forward for the first time the scientif ic proposal to “apply Marxism concretely in China.”10“The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War.”He also advocated that,“Foreign stereotypes must be abolished,there must be less singing of empty,abstract tunes,and dogmatism must be laid to rest,they must be replaced by the fresh,lively Chinese style and spirit which the common people of China love.”11Ibid.

Mao was well versed in the ancient classics and attached importance to absorbing the wisdom of the ancient Chinese sages.The Mao Zedong Thought of “seeking truth from facts,” “the mass line,” and “independence and self-reliance” is a vivid expression and popular explanation of the Marxist worldview and methodology,and is widely known and deeply rooted in China.It is the essence of traditional Chinese culture,and contains the wisdom and humanistic heritage of the Chinese nation.The doctrine “seek truth from facts” is taken from the phrase “l(fā)ove ancient culture,study it seriously,and seek correct and reliable conclusions from it based on facts” (History of the Former Han[漢書(shū)],“The Biography of King Xian of Hejian” [河間獻(xiàn)王傳]) which praised the attitude of Emperor Jing’s son Liu De 劉德 (d.130 BCE) toward his study.In the article “Reform Our Study”[改造我們的學(xué)習(xí)],Mao gave a new philosophical meaning to the term,explaining that“facts” are the things that exist objectively,“to seek” means to study,and “truth” or “correct and reliable conclusions” means the laws governing things.12“Reform Our Study,” in vol.III ofSelected Works of Mao Tse-tung,Marxists Internet Archive,accessed November 28,2021,https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-3/mswv3_02.htm.The term “mass” in the “mass line” is originally from theXunzi.Xunzi’s view of history included the idea of valuing the people.For example,in his “Royal Regulations” [王制],he stated that,“Rulers are like boats,the multitude like water.Water can carry boats,and water can overturn boats.” “Selfreliance” is another notion stressed by Mao,which was evolved from “The Biographies of Marquis of Pingjin and Zhufu Yan” [平津侯主父列傳]in theRecords of the Grand Historian[史記](méi).In this book,Yan An 嚴(yán)安 (f l.128 BCE) used the lessons of the rise and fall of the Qin dynasty (221—206 BCE) to admonish Emperor Wu (r.140—87 BCE) of the Han dynasty for being militaristic,stating that,“Ruled by an enlightened king,everyone revives.”In addition,Mao also borrowed the Chinese philosophical categories ofzhi知 (knowledge)andxing行 (action) to explain the principle of the relationship between knowledge and practice in Marxist epistemology.He used ancient Chinese dialectical propositions such as“one divides into two” to express the contradictory view of materialistic dialectics,and he used the ancient Chinese art of war and battles to explain the Marxist military dialectic.

Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era has made new contributions in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and integrating it with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture.

First,Xi Jinping Thought insists on conf idence in Chinese theory and culture,and from a new historical perspective,it clarif ies the importance of the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,the basic attitude of Marxism toward traditional Chinese culture,and how they are integrated.Xi highly recognizes the value of Chinese civilization,emphasizing that its strength lies in its profound cultural tradition,its system of thought with indigenous features,and its intellectual wisdom and rational thinking accumulated over thousands of years.Chinese civilization continues the cultural bloodline of our country and nation,and needs to be passed down from generation to generation and maintained,while keeping pace with the times and breaking new ground.We should adhere to the basic Marxist viewpoint and the Chinese position,and make greater eff orts to f ind and expound the best elements of traditional Chinese culture.We need to help the most basic cultural genes of the Chinese nation to f it into contemporary culture,bringing them into step with today’s society.We should promote a cultural spirit that transcends temporal and national boundaries,has lasting charm,and embodies contemporary values based on creative transformation and innovative development.

Second,Xi Jinping Thought attaches great importance to tapping resources from the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture to nourish the core socialist values.General Secretary Xi regards the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture as “the cultural lifeblood of the Chinese nation” and “an important source for nurturing the core socialist values,” and a solid foundation which we “hold against the impact of other cultures.”13“Xi Jinping Presides over a Forum on Literature and Art,Stressing the Importance for Writers and Artists to Take a People-Centered Approach and Produce More Works That Do Justice to Our Times” [習(xí)近平主持召開(kāi)文藝工作座談會(huì)強(qiáng)調(diào) 堅(jiān)持以人民為中心的創(chuàng)作導(dǎo)向 創(chuàng)作更多無(wú)愧于時(shí)代的優(yōu)秀作品],People’s Daily [人民日?qǐng)?bào)],October 16,2014.He quoted Guan Zhong’s 管仲 (ca.723—645 BCE) famous statement—“A country has four social standards ...propriety,righteousness,integrity,and the sense of shame....If the four standards do not prevail,the country perishes” (Guanzi,“Shepherding the People” [牧民])—to illustrate the important relationship between personal cultivation and the country’s survival.Xi advocates the need to value benevolence,a focus on the people,integrity,dialectics,concordance,and common ground.He also encourages the cultivation of such traditional virtues as continuous self-improvement,respecting work and enjoying company,supporting righteousness and goodness,helping those in distress and aiding those in peril,acting bravely for justice,and observing filial piety and loving relatives.Xi encourages young students to embrace the values of investigating things,extending knowledge,making intentions sincere,rectifying the mind,cultivating one’s morality,managing the family,governing the state well,and ensuring that all under Heaven are at peace.He also warns Party members and offi cials with the ancient adages that “the rise or fall of a political power depends on whether it accommodates the people’s will” (ibid.),and that “there is a common way to govern a country,and the benef it of the people is the foundation” (Huainanzi,“A Compendious Essay” [氾論訓(xùn)]).

Third,Xi Jinping Thought values the wisdom of traditional Chinese culture in governance,and applies it to guide eff orts to strengthen the Party and modernize China’s system and capacity for governance.General Secretary Xi has repeatedly stressed that “a just cause should be pursued for the common good” (Book of Rites,“Evolutions of Rites” [禮運(yùn)]),in advocating the embrace of a connection with the people.He likens education in Party spirit to the Communists’ “l(fā)earning of the mind.” Xi requires Communist Party members and officials to bear in mind:“Never forget why we started,and we can accomplish our mission.” He urges offi cials to remember that “the people are the foundation of a nation,and a nation can enjoy peace only when its foundation is strong” (Book of History,“Song of Five Children”) and that “the country must be run based on popular support.”14This statement is derived fromMencius 4A:9:“There is a Way to get the country:get the people,and the kingdom is got.There is a Way to get the people:get their support,and the people are got.”Xi emphasizes that “employing capable officials represents the top priority of governance”(Historical Events Retold as a Mirror for Government[資治通鑒],“Records of Wei,V”[魏紀(jì)五]),that rule of rites and rule of law should be integrated,that virtue should be prioritized over sanctions in governance,and that to govern the country,offi cials must be regulated f irst.He also asks offi cials to “govern by virtue” (Analects2:1),rectify themselves with self-cultivation,and be alert to dangers even in times of calm.All of this fully ref lects the profound historical awareness and cultural heritage of Xi’s thinking on governance.

Finally,Xi Jinping Thought manifests the wisdom of traditional Chinese philosophy and explains the laws of social development and the development of human civilization.Xi stresses that the Chinese nation has always sought harmony between human and nature,and that Chinese civilization has accumulated a wealth of ideas on ecological conservation.Xi’s theory that “l(fā)ucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets” ref lects the concept of the unity of Heaven and Humanity in traditional Chinese culture.He also uses the statement “it is natural for things to be diff erent” (Mencius3A:4) to explain the diversity of human civilization,and “harmony within diversity” (Analects13:23) to illustrate the law governing the development of civilization.Xi believes that the civilization of each country and nation is rooted in the soil of its own nation and has its own identity and strengths,and that the diversity of civilizations of all countries and nations should be maintained.

Principles and Paths for Continuing to Adapt Marxism to the Chinese Context[8]

On the basis of this hundred-year historical process of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context,how can the basic tenets of Marxism be further integrated with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture? Xi,in his speech at the ceremony marking the centenary of the CPC,pointed out the direction,principles,and basic paths of integration:we should center on the theme of the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation,rely on the practice of China’s new journey of modernization,review the historical experience and developmental laws of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context,further tap the valuable resources of the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,and in light of the needs of the progress of the times,cultural development,and in-depth practice,absorb the achievements of the development of world civilization,and create a new phase in integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture.Accordingly,there are several points worth noting.

First,we should correctly grasp the basic tenets of Marxism,comprehensively understand the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,and strive to identify areas of common interest and points of convergence between the two.The basic tenets of Marxism,in a broad sense,refer to the fundamental stand,viewpoint,and method of Marxism,and in a narrow sense,refer to the fundamental views of Marxism,primarily including the basic tenets of Marxist philosophy,political economy,and scientific socialism.The excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture include both the grand cultural legacy from ancient China and the revolutionary culture from modern times.In my opinion,there are mainly two points of convergence between the two:one is the core of culture,that is,values,including the rules of conduct,family values,human values,meaningful concepts of life,and social ideals with positive signif icance expressed by ancient sages,worthies,and patriots;and the other is the wisdom or dialectical thought that explores the changes in Heaven and Humanity and in ancient and modern times.The essence,or most important content,that runs through these two aspects is the ruling spirit of the Chinese nation,including national thinking,national integrity,and national style.To integrate with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,Marxism must penetrate into the inner world of the Chinese people and become part of their cultural life and their culture.

Second,innovations should be made within integration,and integration should be based on innovation.Neither the basic tenets of Marxism nor the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture are changeless;they are both constantly enriched and developed.Marxism should achieve innovation in content and form by absorbing the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,and traditional Chinese culture should be creatively transformed and achieve innovation-driven development under the guidance or inf luence of Marxist theory.This process is a combination of theoretical and cultural consciousness,as well as a two-way interaction and two-way combination of Marxism and traditional Chinese culture.The process of these innovation-driven developments should be oriented toward Chinese problems,solve Chinese problems,and promote the development of Chinese practice and the progress of Chinese civilization.Through this combination and innovation,Chinese thought and culture can better play the important role of heralding national and epochal change.

Third,vertical absorption and inheritance and horizontal exchange and mutual learning should be both pursued in order to deepen the integration of Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture. Cultural development is often achieved through the dual process of inheritance of historical cultural achievements and absorption of contemporary cultural achievements.In the case of Chinese Marxism,it is necessary to absorb not only the essence of ancient and modern Chinese culture,but also contemporary Chinese cultural achievements;it is necessary to inherit the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,but also to learn from the achievements of other cultures,including the new achievements of contemporary world civilization.In integrating Marxism with the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture,it is necessary to have both a historical perspective and a contemporary vision,to have both a Chinese and a global vision,to neither simply restore the past nor blindly exclude the past,and to ref lect historical culture while being based on contemporary developments.

The integration of Marxism and the excellent aspects of traditional Chinese culture should not remain theoretical,but should be based on our practical work and practical life.The two should not only be integrated in form,but also,and more importantly,in content.In this regard,we have a long way to go.