美國(guó)新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)的研究 *

王 琰

(廣東培正學(xué)院，廣東 廣州 510830)

*收稿日期：2013-10-21

一、預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)及其分類

預(yù)設(shè)理論最早由德國(guó)哲學(xué)家弗雷格1892年提出。近年來學(xué)者們將其引入語(yǔ)言學(xué)范疇并已經(jīng)成為了該領(lǐng)域中重要的研究對(duì)象。在本質(zhì)上，預(yù)設(shè)就是一種“語(yǔ)用推理”(Levinson 1983), 預(yù)設(shè)往往由預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)引發(fā)，即預(yù)設(shè)產(chǎn)生的語(yǔ)言表達(dá)形式。Levinson (1983) 總結(jié)出了13種預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)：限制性詞、反復(fù)意義表達(dá)詞、事實(shí)動(dòng)詞、含蓄動(dòng)詞、狀態(tài)變化動(dòng)詞、評(píng)價(jià)動(dòng)詞、比較和對(duì)比、分裂句、帶有強(qiáng)調(diào)成分的分裂句、時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句、非限制性定語(yǔ)從句、反事實(shí)條件句和疑問句。

二、新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)及相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)回顧

導(dǎo)語(yǔ)實(shí)則是濃縮的微型新聞。所謂“濃縮” 一方面是指內(nèi)容上的精簡(jiǎn)。它應(yīng)該用最經(jīng)濟(jì)、最簡(jiǎn)明扼要的方式體現(xiàn)出整篇新聞的核心內(nèi)容或主要觀點(diǎn), 讓讀者能夠?qū)ξ恼鹿８乓荒苛巳? 另一方面, 是指字?jǐn)?shù)上的濃縮。一般來說, 英語(yǔ)新聞的導(dǎo)語(yǔ)常占據(jù)一則新聞的第一自然段，一般以一個(gè)或兩個(gè)完整的句子概括全文。準(zhǔn)確的說，就是選擇一個(gè)最吸引人的新聞事實(shí)，突顯新聞價(jià)值的最大要素。美聯(lián)社的寫作手冊(cè)里要求一條優(yōu)秀導(dǎo)語(yǔ)具備10個(gè)特點(diǎn)，即提供消息、簡(jiǎn)短、明晰、簡(jiǎn)單、直截了當(dāng)、生動(dòng)、客觀、富于色彩、格調(diào)高尚。因而，寫作手法的多樣性及其鮮明的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)使得近年來學(xué)者們的研究主要集中在以下幾個(gè)方面：第一，寫作方式。例如，中英文新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)差異分析( 于航 2004)、 淺析英語(yǔ)新聞稿的導(dǎo)語(yǔ)寫作(范玲 2010)等。第二，功能語(yǔ)法。例如，從功能語(yǔ)法的視角論災(zāi)難英語(yǔ)新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)與新聞價(jià)值(丁暉 2006)等。第三，翻譯。例如，功能翻譯理論指導(dǎo)下的英語(yǔ)新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)漢譯(楊冬青 2010)等。 可以看出，對(duì)英語(yǔ)新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)的研究涵蓋了多個(gè)方面，但是對(duì)導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中的預(yù)設(shè)機(jī)制的研究是空白。而筆者旨在研究預(yù)設(shè)在導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中的應(yīng)用方式和作用及其如何幫助導(dǎo)語(yǔ)實(shí)現(xiàn)其在新聞中的重要功能。

三、研究方法及其結(jié)果

本研究收集了《紐約時(shí)報(bào)》中60篇熱點(diǎn)新聞的導(dǎo)語(yǔ)。在分析過程中，筆者按照Levinson (1983)總結(jié)的十三類預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)對(duì)收集到的語(yǔ)料運(yùn)用AntConc 專業(yè)統(tǒng)計(jì)軟件進(jìn)行了分析。

(一)詞匯的預(yù)設(shè)

1. 限定性詞語(yǔ)

限定性詞語(yǔ)在新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中運(yùn)用頻率最高。原因在于每句話中都必須要有表述的主題，因而這種指稱表達(dá)出現(xiàn)在每句話中。例如：

例(1)An ecstatic China finally got its Olympic moment on Friday night. And if the astonishing opening ceremonies of the 2008 Olympic Games lavished grand tribute on Chinese civilization and sought to stir an ancient nation’s pride, there was also a message for an uncertain outside world: Do not worry. We mean no harm. (Aug. 9, 2008)

這是一篇關(guān)于奧運(yùn)會(huì)開幕式的報(bào)道。這篇導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中有三處用到了不定冠詞a/an，預(yù)設(shè)了這樣三個(gè)事實(shí)：

a.The ecstatic China exists on Friday night.

b.The message exists.

c.There is an uncertain outside.

這樣的預(yù)設(shè)其實(shí)就是用最簡(jiǎn)潔的語(yǔ)言告訴讀者三者真實(shí)存在。奧運(yùn)會(huì)的開幕讓中國(guó)感到興奮和自豪。不確定的外部世界的存在事實(shí)上就意味著其他國(guó)家的人民不了解中國(guó)。傳遞我們沒有危害的信息言下之意就是說明在西方媒體眼里中國(guó)一直以來對(duì)他國(guó)帶有惡意。在看似客觀的語(yǔ)句中，報(bào)道者把自己的觀點(diǎn)和評(píng)價(jià)傳遞給了讀者。

例(2)Powerful earthquakes on the Tibetan plateau have killed hundreds of people and injured many thousands of others. The disaster presents the Chinese authorities with the challenge of another large-scale relief effort following an earthquake in neighboring Sichuan province in May 2008 that killed more than 80,000 people. The remoteness of the affected area will make it all the harder. (April 14, 2010)

這是一篇關(guān)于青海地震的報(bào)道。在這篇新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中有六處由定冠詞the引發(fā)的預(yù)設(shè)。The disaster 就是指青海玉樹地震。The Chinese authorities 是指抗震救災(zāi)的政府相關(guān)部門。The challenge 中的the實(shí)際就是大規(guī)模救災(zāi)工作的難度。而最后兩個(gè)the 是同樣指地震發(fā)生的青海玉樹。這六個(gè)定冠詞的使用讓新聞?wù)Z言更加簡(jiǎn)潔.

2. 含蓄動(dòng)詞

Yale(2000)指出：the use of one implicative verb can bring out its asserted meaning and the non-asserted meaning with the presupposition in it．正如Yale所說“avoid”一詞意味著：某一事情總是發(fā)生或者阻止某一事情發(fā)生。

例(3) On a bustling corner near downtown Shanghai recently, some shoppers avoided the steamed buns sold by Zhu Qinghe in a street-side cubbyhole. Instead, they bought the packaged buns in the freezer section of Hualian, a supermarket chain store in the same building. (May 8, 2011)

這是有關(guān)上海染色饅頭事件的報(bào)道。使用Avoid 作為觸發(fā)語(yǔ)，預(yù)設(shè)信息為：沒有顧客買朱清和在路邊叫賣的饅頭。這樣的預(yù)設(shè)讓語(yǔ)言更加多樣性。

3. 狀態(tài)動(dòng)詞

例(4) The new United States ambassador to?China, Gary F. Locke, warned China on Tuesday that its undervalued currency, its increasingly restrictive business environment and the rampant theft of intellectual property threatened both the country’s long-term economic prospects and American job growth at a time of continued weakness in the global economy. (Sep.21, 2011)

這篇新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中有兩處預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)。Continue 一詞作為預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)，讀者們可以獲知的預(yù)設(shè)信息是：全球經(jīng)濟(jì)一直很疲軟。評(píng)價(jià)動(dòng)詞warn 引發(fā)這樣的預(yù)設(shè)信息：中國(guó)存在低估人民幣，過多限制經(jīng)濟(jì)環(huán)境和瘋狂盜取知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的事實(shí)。報(bào)道者把自己對(duì)中國(guó)的評(píng)價(jià)作為預(yù)設(shè)信息傳遞給了讀者，構(gòu)建了讀者心中中國(guó)的不良形象。在全球經(jīng)濟(jì)疲軟的時(shí)期，中國(guó)的行為威脅到了中美經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展甚至美國(guó)就業(yè)率。這種報(bào)道是夾雜了個(gè)人情感，是不客觀的。

4. 評(píng)價(jià)動(dòng)詞

例(5) The International Monetary Fund warned China on Tuesday that tight government management of the nation’s banking and financial system was creating “a steady build-up in vulnerabilities” that could eventually damp economic growth. (Nov. 16, 2011)

Warn 一詞在這篇導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中充當(dāng)預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)。隱含的信息就是：The tight government management of the nation’s banking and financial system exist. 表明中國(guó)的金融業(yè)是由政府把持的，并未真正對(duì)外開放。 新聞?dòng)浾哂迷u(píng)價(jià)動(dòng)詞作為觸發(fā)語(yǔ)，表明了自己的看法和態(tài)度。同時(shí)也把這樣的觀點(diǎn)傳遞給了西方讀者。

5. 反復(fù)意義表達(dá)詞

這一類觸發(fā)語(yǔ)在新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中也較為常用。重疊詞的使用預(yù)設(shè)了某一行為和狀態(tài)之前就已經(jīng)存在了。因而，使用了反復(fù)意義表達(dá)詞的新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)簡(jiǎn)潔明了，避免了重復(fù)、啰嗦。例如：

例(6)China on Thursday has again showed its preference for using administrative controls to manage its surging economy, raising down-payment requirements for certain home buyers after announcing that economic growth in the first quarter surged to 11.9% from a year earlier. (April 18, 2010)

這又是一篇西方媒體對(duì)中國(guó)金融政策的報(bào)道。Again 一詞的使用引發(fā)預(yù)設(shè)。中國(guó)曾經(jīng)使用行政干預(yù)手段管理經(jīng)濟(jì)。這樣的預(yù)設(shè)手段同樣表明了報(bào)道者的立場(chǎng)，主觀介入新聞事件。

例(7) A new study by the World Bank and a Chinese government research organization warns that the country’s economic growth is likely to diminish over the next few decades unless China alters its development model and rethinks the role of government in managing the economy. (Fer. 28, 2012)

Rethink 作為觸發(fā)語(yǔ)，它預(yù)設(shè)的意思就是中國(guó)政府在經(jīng)濟(jì)管理方面的角色定位需要反思。其實(shí)就是質(zhì)疑中國(guó)政府在經(jīng)濟(jì)管理中的職能作用?，F(xiàn)行的發(fā)展模式和管理定位已經(jīng)不適合中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展。上面筆者分析評(píng)價(jià)動(dòng)詞的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)和作用，在這篇新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中也出現(xiàn)了“warn”, 同樣的warn 預(yù)設(shè)了帶有作者觀點(diǎn)的信息，國(guó)家經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)很有可能在未來幾十年放緩。

6. 事實(shí)動(dòng)詞

例(8) EUROPE is drowning and needs a lifeline. A series of marathon meetings this week yielded a new set of proposals, but what they depend on is cash — and lots of it, perhaps trillions of dollars — to save Greece and the European banking system and to prevent financial contagion from spreading to Spain, Italy and even France, which would destroy the euro zone as we know it. Where to turn for help? The answer is obvious: China. (Oct. 28, 2011)

這是一篇關(guān)于歐洲經(jīng)濟(jì)需要中國(guó)支持的報(bào)道。Know 一詞就是預(yù)設(shè)了這一事實(shí)在歐洲借貸會(huì)摧毀整個(gè)歐元區(qū)。讀者順理成章地獲知了報(bào)道者傳遞的信息，并且得到了很明確的答案：只有中國(guó)才能幫助歐洲。

(二)句法的預(yù)設(shè)

1. 時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句

時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句通常由連接詞when, before, after, as，since 等引導(dǎo)。不管主從句之間是什么關(guān)系，時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句都能引發(fā)事實(shí)預(yù)設(shè)。根據(jù)上面的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)，它在新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中運(yùn)用頻率較高。

例(9)Hundreds of people were injured here on Tuesday when a subway train slammed into the rear of another train in a sprawling transit line that opened just last year. The accident cast new scrutiny on the safety record of China’s rapidly modernizing mass transit rail systems. (Sep.25, 2011)

在這篇新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中，when 引導(dǎo)的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句預(yù)設(shè)了這樣的信息： a subway train slammed into the rear of another train. 不過預(yù)設(shè)信息僅僅作為次要信息，主要突出在這次事故中有幾百人受傷。

例(10)He is widely known as “the crying prime minister,” although he prefers to be called “Grandpa Wen.” Over the past week, as Wen Jiabao toured earthquake-shattered towns and cities across northern Sichuan, he has hollered out words of encouragement to those trapped beneath fallen buildings and shared tearful moments with newly orphaned children. (May 21, 2008)

在這篇導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中，as 連接的從句作為預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)預(yù)設(shè)了這樣的事實(shí)：Wen Jiabao toured earthquke-shattered towns and cities across norther Sichuan.

根據(jù)上述分析可以看出，時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句的使用突出了重要信息，并把次要信息作為了預(yù)設(shè)的內(nèi)容。語(yǔ)言因此變得簡(jiǎn)潔而清楚，傳遞給讀者更多的信息，同時(shí)也讓導(dǎo)語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言更加多樣化。

2. 比較和對(duì)比

例(11) Seeking to broaden its appeal to China’s better-educated and perhaps more hip youth, the People’s Liberation Army has dropped a longtime bar to enlisting in the service: now, recruits can spot tattoos on their faces and necks.(November 2, 2011)

這是關(guān)于中國(guó)征兵制度有所放寬的報(bào)道。導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中有兩處用到了比較級(jí)的形式作為觸發(fā)語(yǔ)。其一就是Better-educated，其預(yù)設(shè)信息就是中國(guó)以前征召的士兵沒有受到良好的教育。其二就是more hip youth, 預(yù)設(shè)信息就是中國(guó)士兵也不時(shí)尚。不時(shí)尚其實(shí)就是說信息閉塞對(duì)當(dāng)下的社會(huì)情況并不了解，抨擊了中國(guó)的軍事封閉式的管理。這樣的對(duì)比就表現(xiàn)出了報(bào)道者的個(gè)人觀點(diǎn)和評(píng)價(jià)。傳遞給西方讀者人民解放軍沒有文化，盲目聽從政府的形象。

3. 非限制性定語(yǔ)從句

例(12)The Chinese government increased trade tensions with the Obama administration Wednesday evening by unexpectedly imposing antidumping and antisubsidy tariffs on imports of sport utility vehicles and midsize and large cars from the United States. The Commerce Ministry of China, which has conducted atwo-year trade investigation of the American imports, gave no explanation for its decision to impose the duties. (Dec.14, 2011)

這篇新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)通過使用非限制性定語(yǔ)從句，使句子更加簡(jiǎn)練。Which隱含的預(yù)設(shè)為：The Commerce of Ministry of China has conducted a two-year trade investigation of the American imports.這句話通過預(yù)設(shè)其實(shí)還存在一種對(duì)中國(guó)商務(wù)部的譴責(zé)。既然中國(guó)商務(wù)部對(duì)美國(guó)進(jìn)口有近兩年的研究，應(yīng)該對(duì)美國(guó)進(jìn)口商品貿(mào)易和常規(guī)準(zhǔn)則等各方面有很深入全面的了解。那么為什么它對(duì)這次征收關(guān)稅的行為不能給予任何的解釋呢。

另外“increased”預(yù)設(shè)了中美政府之間本身就處于貿(mào)易緊張的局面，中國(guó)增加對(duì)美國(guó)進(jìn)口汽車征收反傾銷稅和反補(bǔ)貼稅的行為則加劇了這種狀況，將責(zé)任推給中國(guó)政府。

4. 分裂句

例(13) I have to admit that I read this article filled with concern for and well wishes to Mr. Jobs, his family and to Apple. I hope this is a part of a therapeutic break that he is taking to get his health fully on track and that he will be back as soon as he is feeling up to it. (Jan 7, 2011) 這是一篇關(guān)于因?yàn)樯眢w原因喬布斯暫離蘋果公司的報(bào)道。大眾都因喬布斯的離開而對(duì)蘋果公司的未來產(chǎn)生擔(dān)憂。預(yù)設(shè)的信息是：He is taking to get his health fully on track during the therapeutic break. 報(bào)道者運(yùn)用分裂句this is…that突出他以及讀者的希望：這只是一個(gè)有益于健康的短暫離別。由于分裂句的特點(diǎn)，報(bào)道者通過使用分裂句強(qiáng)調(diào)他所要表達(dá)的部分，引起讀者更多的關(guān)注。

(三) 名詞化

近年來，很多學(xué)者在研究預(yù)設(shè)機(jī)制的過程中發(fā)現(xiàn)預(yù)設(shè)語(yǔ)還有其他的類型，比如，名詞化。Halliday (1994) 多次談到名詞化問題。在討論語(yǔ)法隱喻時(shí), Halliday 認(rèn)為, 小句程式變成名詞化程式( 即小句名詞化) 可能使某些信息丟失。更準(zhǔn)確地說, 這些信息并沒有丟失, 而是成為預(yù)設(shè), 即作者知道他自己要表達(dá)的是什么意思, 他以為讀者也知道這個(gè)意思, 或者認(rèn)為讀者能夠通過推理得到這個(gè)意思。這就是典型的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)。Goatly(2000) 明確指出, 名詞化是實(shí)現(xiàn)預(yù)設(shè)的一種手段。程曉堂(2003)也得出結(jié)論，名詞化詞語(yǔ)與一般的限定性描述有本質(zhì)區(qū)別, 所以應(yīng)該單獨(dú)列為一種預(yù)設(shè)語(yǔ)。

因此，筆者大膽地將其單獨(dú)列為預(yù)設(shè)手段之一分析在新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中的應(yīng)用。在收集語(yǔ)料中有兩篇使用了名詞化。

例(14)A steady rise in U.S. consumer prices in January pointed to persistent inflation pressures despite fresh signs on Wednesday that the declining housing sector remains a drag on the economy. (Fer. 17, 2008)

這是一篇關(guān)于美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)的報(bào)道。導(dǎo)語(yǔ)以名詞化形式開頭。不用名詞化的形式表達(dá)的形式如下：U.S. consumer prices rose in January, which pointed to persistent inflation pressures despite fresh signs on Wednesday that the declining housing sector remains a drag on the economy. 使用名詞化就把美國(guó)消費(fèi)價(jià)格持續(xù)上漲作為已知的既成事實(shí)傳遞給了讀者。

例(15)POWERFUL earthquakes on the Tibetan plateau have killed hundreds of people and injured many thousands of others. The disaster presents the Chinese authorities with the challenge of another large-scale relief effort following an earthquake in neighbouring Sichuan province in May 2008 that killed more than 80,000 people. The remoteness of the affected area will make it all the harder.

在這篇關(guān)于青海地震報(bào)道的新聞導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中，報(bào)道者也使用了名詞化形式作為預(yù)設(shè)語(yǔ)。“chanllege” is 取自句子another large-scale relief effort is challenging. 名詞化讓句子更加簡(jiǎn)潔，同時(shí)也預(yù)設(shè)信息作為既成事實(shí)傳遞給讀者，讀者會(huì)認(rèn)為這次抗震救災(zāi)工作是具有挑戰(zhàn)性的。

四、結(jié)語(yǔ)

綜合以上分析，筆者發(fā)現(xiàn)預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)運(yùn)用到了在所有語(yǔ)料中，甚至同一個(gè)導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中有時(shí)會(huì)含有不止一個(gè)預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ)，就是說明同一導(dǎo)語(yǔ)中含有不止一個(gè)語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)。就其功能而言，語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)的存在一方面讓導(dǎo)語(yǔ)保持了文字的經(jīng)濟(jì)性，減輕了讀者閱讀的負(fù)擔(dān)。另一方面突出了重要信息，提高傳播的針對(duì)性，實(shí)現(xiàn)了傳播者的意圖。