Analysis and Comment on “Freedom”
—— Based on Liang Qichao’s On Freedom

Jin Ziwei,Si Mingyu

(1.School of Government Peking University,Beijing 100871;2.School of Marxism Peking University,Beijing 100871,)

Ⅰ.Liang Qichao’s On Freedom:the concept of freedom given by the theme of the times

As we all know,in the modern Chinese society,many concepts from the Western modern society,such as democracy,freedom,human rights,science,equality and so on,have different degrees of misreading in the later Chinese context.This is especially true of the concept of freedom.On the one hand,the modernization process of China should liberate individuals from the autocratic monarchy under the old system of prefectures and counties,highlighting the contradiction between individuals and the old social system.On the other hand,as China’s modernization process has encountered unprecedented difficulties and humiliation,the overall survival of the Chinese nation was once at the most critical juncture.The freedom of individuals must give way to the independence and freedom of the nation and state.〔1〕Liang Qichao’s thought of “l(fā)iberalism” was elucidated against the background of the modern Chinese modernization transformation with the theme of saving the country so that it may survive.As to the theoretical source of Liang Qichao’s thought of liberalism,there are three representative viewpoints in the academic circle:the first one is represented by Huang Zongzhi.The author thinks that Liang Qichao’s liberalism is the synthesis of Confucianism,Japanese Meiji Restoration and Western thought.The second,represented by Xiao Gongquan and Zhang Hao,emphasizes the Western origin of Liang Qichao’s thought of liberalism.The latter thought that Liang was more influenced by Rousseau’s liberalism in France.The third kind,represented by Zheng Kuangming and Tanjianzhi,highlights the role of Japanese ideological circles in the formation of Liang Qichao’s concept of freedom.〔2〕

This article has no intention to explore the origin of Liang Qichao’s thought of liberalism,which is due to the fact that Liang Qichao’s “concept of freedom” has not formed a special work,nor has it made a special interpretation of the concept of “freedom”.However,from the lines of some articles,we can still see his understanding of this concept.The author borrowed Liang Qichao’s analysis of “freedom” in On Freedom to reveal the evolution and variation of the term “freedom” in modern Chinese society.

Ⅱ.Liang Qichao’s “freedom”:the evolution from “internal value” to “rational tool”

1.Freedom as a “universal value” and “historical motive force”

Whatever forms of liberalism,it generally shares certain intrinsic values or philosophical foundations.At the beginning of the creation of liberalism,it did not limit its perspective to specific political,economic and social problems,but attempted to develop a set of basic theories about individuals,state and society.To a large extent,liberalism has been maintaining an individualistic position and a view of individual supremacy.It tends to emphasize the value and rights of individuals,in terms of their natural endowment or potential,beyond everything,and that individuals should be deserved the highest respect and enjoy certain fundamental rights.It stresses that the legal,political and economic principles of society are the implementation and realization of this basic moral principle.Most theories of liberalism see society more or less as a union of individuals,not as an organic community.

Liang Qichao stated in the article On Freedom:“Freedom,the justice of the world,and the necessity of life,applies to everything.” In his view,freedom is a universally applicable value,and it is not only an indispensable element of an individual’s life,but also fully applicable to the course of social and historical development.In particular,the development of Western modern history can be regarded as a historical process of pursuing freedom to a great extent.He cited 37 international events in “Table of Events Striving for Freedom” in the modern history of the world,from “Catholics and Protestants’ promise of religious freedom through singing treaties in 1532” to “Australia’s political freedom of autonomous federal”.Although each event pursues different freedom,it can also be seen in “all the events of the world for hundreds of years,the original power is freedom”.After freedom becomes the common value goal that people generally pursue,“freedom” also becomes the motive force of historical development.

To be sure,Liang Qichao assigns freedom the height of “universal value” and extolls moral will.That is enough to illustrate his emphasis on freedom.Whether for individuals or groups,there is freedom,which is an important aspect of the universal value of freedom,in this sense,Liang Qichao’s contribution cannot be ignored.It must be recognized,however,that although he sees freedom as the universal value,in the concrete demonstration of the form of freedom and the road of freedom in China,he falls into the misunderstanding of one-sided analysis of the relationship between freedom and the reality of China.The instrumental and instrumental view of freedom is also evident.〔3〕

2.Freedom as the “core of thought” and “tool of reason”

The core of Liang Qichao’s thought of freedom is actually group freedom,which is his true freedom.Not infringing upon the freedom of others is the most basic boundary of each person’s freedom.This principle is regarded by Liang Qichao as a basis for discussing what he calls “group freedom”.Liang Qichao adhered to Mill’s “everyone is free,and no invasion of freedom is the boundary” as “the extreme principle of freedom”.Emphasis is placed on the “freedom belongs to the group,not to individuals”.Moreover,the distinction between group freedom and individual freedom is seen by Liang Qichao as a distinction between civilization and barbarism.In the age of barbarism,the freedom of individuals prevailed,and the freedom of the group perished.In civilized times,the freedom of the group is strong,but the freedom of individuals diminishes.There is a certain proportion between the two,and none of them can be excused.Liang believed that if the freedom of individuals was taken as freedom,then the people who enjoy freedom in the world should not be the same as the Chinese people today.The gentleman arbitrarily stays in the countryside,officials won’t be able to resist temptation,either;businessmen do not pay off their debts,and those who are deceived could not hold anyone accountable.Every man can be a gentleman,and everyone can be a dishonest merchant,then there is too much freedom enjoyed by everyone.

On the surface of it,these statements seem very eloquent,but in fact there is a deep misunderstanding of freedom,because freedom is essentially freedom of the individual,and freedom of a group is nothing but an extension of the freedom of individuals.Therefore,group freedom and individual freedom are not in juxtaposition,which are not at the same level,and the so-called “dichotomy” is only literal and not logic and real.More importantly,Liang Qichao recognized the rationality of individual freedom and thought that personal freedom was as important as group freedom,but in his opinion,personal freedom was obviously secondary.He talked more about group freedom,and paid more attention to group freedom.“Can’t freedom be applied to individuals?”What is evil?A group’s freedom is the accumulation of individual freedom,one cannot live without the group,and if the group does not protect its freedom,then there will be another group which will invade and seize the freedom of individuals.

From here,we can see that Liang Qichao did not fully understand the value of individual freedom and the significance of individual freedom to group freedom.In his case,personal freedom was in fact empty and nominal.Therefore,Liang Qichao reverses the relationship between individual freedom and group freedom,he emphasizes priority of groups,but in fact weakens the individual nature of freedom.So what is group freedom?“Group” is of course a very rich concept,but for Liang Qichao,group freedom mainly refers to national freedom or freedom of the country.Therefore,starting with the theory of individual freedom and group freedom,Liang Qichao derives another important liberalistic discourse,that is,the free speech of nation or country.

In Liang Qichao’s view,liberalism has two dimensions in essence:as far as individuals are concerned,freedom means resistance to any slavery;as far as groups are concerned,freedom is defined as the state and the nation’s resistance to the oppression and aggression of other countries and nations as the main body.Liang Qichao put the two together,so the concept of freedom has changed in China.Although it is related to the freedom category of the West,it has been attached with more Chinese tradition and the connotation of the times at the same time.Some scholars have pointed out that:In fact,the category of freedom in modern China has always been carried out at these two levels.On the one hand,freedom has enlightenment at individual level,on the other hand,freedom is salving at the group level.That is to say,freedom,as a rational tool,has the dual function of opposing “monarchy” and “external power”.Moreover,the national liberalism or liberalism of the country as opposed to “foreign power” is more fundamental,which dominates individual liberalism,that is,“saving the nation” over “enlightenment” as Li Zehou said.〔4〕

Ⅲ.Other dimensions of Liang Qichao’s “freedom”:“freedom of civilization” and “freedom of spirit”

1.Freedom of civilization:obey the law

Because of the emphasis on the priority of group freedom to individual freedom,“conformities” constitutes a very important connotation of Liang Qichao’s “freedom”.“That is why those who are truly free will be able to obey,and what do they obey?The law.The law,which I have made to protect my freedom,is also what holds me free.The English are free already.Of all the nations in the world,the most obedient are the British,and those who enjoy the most freedom and happiness are the British.Obedience is the mother of liberty.” A civilized free man,freedom is restricted by law,every movement is like machine,and each step is like the march of the army.

The concept of “Freedom of Civilization” shows Liang Qichao’s accuracy and profundity in grasping the spirit of political freedom of modern liberalism,and it is expressed in Chinese language.It also reflects the Chinese creative interpretation of the spirit of modern Western political liberalism.Liang Qichao,proceeding from the concept of “civilized freedom”,criticized the misunderstanding of freedom by some young people in China at that time:Alas,the youth of this world are noisy and making vociferous speech about freedom;everyone talking about freedom is said to have civilized thought.The so-called free men in the West,fought every battle for the benefit of the community,not for individuals.

In Liang Qichao’s view,freedom is not an arbitrary act of the individual.If “arbitrariness” is also a “freedom”,it is only a barbaric freedom,contrary to the freedom of civilization.Therefore,he firmly opposes the interpretation of the word “freedom” to mean “to take advantage of one’s own interests”.If this is the case,“the word” freedom “is not merely the rhetoric of the autocratic party,but the public enemy of China’s future”.

2.Spiritual freedom:dispel heart slave

Some scholars have pointed out that the failure of the Hundred Days’ Reform of 1898 made Liang Qichao realize the importance of the countrymen’s quality to the strength and weakness of the country,and he thought that the reform of the national quality should be an urgent task.However,Liang Qichao also realized that with the national character of the people at that time it was impossible to complete the dream of reforming the new country,and that there were many “diseases” in the people,among which servility was the most prominent.Therefore,he took the thought of freedom as the weapon.First he aimed at the enslavement of the nation.〔5〕Liang Qichao said:Individual freedom is my freedom is also.But there are two of me:First,me facing living beings,seven feet tall;Second,the mind of seven-feet-tall person.(Meng Zi said,“when things are handed over,they are pulled away.”) The things are what are opposite to me,the superior things refer to all living beings,the inferior refer to the ears and eyes of living beings seven feet tall,above all,all things are not me.Who am I?The function of heart.Establish the important organ of heart and its kindness won’t be snatched.Only I am great,and the things of both worlds are small.Small things irreplaceable by big things is the model of freedom.I am not afraid of enslaving others,but I can’t tolerate being enslaved by others;Compared to being enslaved by others,I can’t tolerate enslaving myself.Chuang Tzu said:No grief is greater than heart death,and death of the body comes second.

On the question of eliminating slavery,Liang Qichao has repeatedly stressed that the most terrible thing is not his enslavement,but his own enslavement of himself.Bodily enslavement can be solved,while the inner enslavement is to bear enslavement with equanimity,without the slightest resistance and the consciousness of fighting for one’s own legitimate right,this is a real slave.Moreover,heart slave is to human,“l(fā)ike the silkworm is in the cocoon,being bound by oneself;like paste in the kettle,frying itself day by day.” Even if you are enslaved,you can still be freed with the help of external forces or with one’s own resistance;And the heart enslavement can’t be helped only the liberation of heart can help remove enslavement.Therefore,if there is a desire for true freedom,slaves of the heart must be freed.

Liang Qichao held that servility should be removed from the following four aspects:do not be slaves of the ancients,do not be slaves of the world,do not be slaves of circumstances,do not be a slave to lust.

To sum up,Liang Qichao’s “heart slave” is aimed at the bad nature of the traditional people themselves,venerating tradition rather than the present,believing in authority and belittling himself.It can be seen that Liang Qichao’s critical consciousness of the world style and his deep sense of distress were inspired by his resignation to fate instead of active enterprising,indulging in sensual enjoyment and self-improvement.〔6〕From the historical point of view,we should confirm Liang Qichao’s keenness,after all,he accurately saw the heavy nature of the oppression of freedom in traditional authoritative society from all aspects.Some scholars have pointed out that in the Chinese society of the late Qing Dynasty,owing to the lack of objective material power,Liang Qichao and others could only place the task of transforming the old world and building the new world on the spiritual freedom of human beings.〔7〕Liang Qichao said that the freedom of “eliminating the heart slave”,in the author’s view,is more like to pursue a kind of freedom of thought and spirit.

Ⅳ.Liang Qichao’s comments on “view of freedom”:radical and conservative

1.Radical:freedom is the most important thing for groups

As is mentioned above,in the West,freedom is fundamentally the freedom of individuals,which originates from the individual’s resistance to society,to the state,to the government,to religion and other external restrictive forces.The freedom of individuals is the foundation of all other freedoms.Liang Qichao’s liberalism originated directly from the West,but influenced by the Chinese traditional discourse system and the overwhelming reality context of saving the nation in modern times,the thought of freedom of the West has undergone great changes in Liang Qichao.Freedom has changed from the discourse of individual nature to the discourse of collective character,from the concept of individual freedom to the concept of group freedom,national freedom,state freedom.

Here we face a dual consideration of logic and reality:When personal freedom and group freedom conflict,or when personal interests and group interests conflict,how to deal with it,how to choose?

This is a very complex and controversial issue in the West,but according to Liang Qichao,it is simple,that is,the group is the most important,the individual is less important,and the individual are subordinate to groups.In his view:it is not a private plan for any sage throughout time who aims to change the world.Compared to groups,individuals are small,when individuals are dwarfed by the group,the human can be ruled.When the two cannot be considered at the same time,great men often do not love themselves,consider no self-interest,do not value their own happiness,in order to reach the reality of their love of groups,benefitting the groups and take pleasure in groups,there are such people.

We can see that there is always great distance between the freedom of Liang Qichao and that of Westerners,and there is no such problem if Westerners do not express it in this way.The freedom of the West is extended from “group”,in more cases,it is derived from the protest against government autocracy and social oppression as a “group”,that is,freedom is always enlightenment,only freedom after the victory of anti-autocracy.There is communitarianism only after liberalism and individualism are radicalized and problems and shortcomings are exposed.Some scholars point out that Liang Qichao has integrated personal freedom with group freedom and formed a thought of freedom of communitarianism.〔8〕Liang Qichao was restricted by the traditional Chinese discourse and the reality of the context of salvation,always combined enlightenment and salvation,which was fundamentally subordinated to salvation,thus emphasizing the role and status of the group.

2.Conservative:unique Chinese discourse expression

Liang Qichao is in a very special historical era,so his thought of freedom inevitably has the characteristics of the times.This concrete manifestation is that his discourse on freedom is to a certain extent carried out in the “group” thinking structure,and closely related to social evolution and the concept of competition.He made it very clear that “no thing in the world that has not been integrated can compete with the outside.” With the abuse of his freedom,and aggression against the freedom of others,and the freedom of the group,the group is no longer independent,and will be the slave of his group,how can men restore freedom?Because of the need of competition,individual freedom is closely related to the freedom of the group and to the “group”.Although individual freedom is the ultimate aim of human society,individual freedom,group freedom and national freedom often need to be coordinated in different periods of social and historical development.And sometimes it’s heavy.At that time,China was in the era of national crisis and full of fierce competition,so relatively speaking,group cohesion and competitiveness were more important.Only when group freedom and national freedom are realized,can real individual freedom be realized.Or it can be said that the emphasis on group freedom and national freedom is a necessary strategy for Liang Qichao as a propagandist of “transitional era”.

At the same time,Liang Qichao’s interpretation of freedom is fundamentally the result of knowledge background,language and culture,and it is the traditional discourse and realistic context that has fundamentally restricted Liang Qichao’s understanding of and introduction to the West.The concepts of monarch,minister,father,son,benevolence,propriety,filial piety,outline,constant virtues and self are the key words of ancient Chinese,and they are crucial to the construction of ancient Chinese ideological system.When the old discourse system has not been abandoned and the new discourse system has not been formed into a complete system or widely recognized and accepted,foreign concepts placed in the old discourse system will have a different meaning.Some scholars have said that “sinicization” has become a Chinese discourse,the meaning and value of which have changed,becoming neither pure Western discourse nor pure Chinese traditional discourse.It is the unique discourse expression of China.

Ⅴ.Conclusion

Liang Qichao’s liberalism is indeed different from Western liberalism,which can be said to be an inevitable phenomenon.Some scholars have pointed out that because a kind of theory in different cultural soil and time environment will often reflect some different connotations,thus,some different changes will inevitably take place in Western liberalism in the process of cross-language construction.What is different from Western liberalism is that the dimensions of Liang Qichao’s freedom are developed at two levels,one is the individual level,the other is the national level.The former has the significance of enlightenment,while the latter has the significance of saving lives.Enlightenment and salvation are not only the “double variations” of modern China,but also the dual responsibility of modern Chinese enlightenment thinkers,which is demonstrated in Liang Qichao’s thought of freedom,especially in the article of On freedom.〔9〕From the standpoint of Western liberalism,there is no doubt that this ideological system is full of contradictions,but in the historical situation of China at that time,this contradiction precisely reflects a certain rationality.What it shows is the strong sense of national responsibility and responsibility of modern Chinese liberal intellectuals.As Mr Wong Kewu said:When individual interests and group interests conflict,people should sacrifice their private interests to pursue the public good,but this does not mean that they do not pay attention to the individual,because this concept is the concept of nationalism.〔10〕

In short,liberalism should not be regarded as a fixed,abstract,unchanging moral and political values,but should be placed in a specific historical environment.It is possible to fully understand liberalism by analyzing the relationship between the individual and the society and the state in this environment.In other words,the study of liberalism must be both theoretical,historical and practical.Just as Liang Qichao stated in the article On freedom:When the people seek freedom,their countries are different and their kinds of demands are different,and the people who care about their arrival are often different.They intend to apply them into reality rather than talk about them,and to do one thing against the public enemy rather than for their own gain.

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〔4〕Gao Yu,From Individual Freedom to Group Freedom — Liang Qichao’s Chinese Liberalism, Xuehai,2005(01).

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〔6〕Shouyong,Eliminating Heart Slave to Enjoy Freedom — Analysis of Liang Qichao’s Thought of Freedom, Zhejiang Journal,2006(06).

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〔9〕Chen Minrong,The Tension between Individual Freedom and National Freedom — Analysis of Liang Qichao’s Liberalism, Journal of Wuhan University,Humanities Science,2009(3).

〔10〕Chen Minrong,The Tension between Individual Freedom and National Freedom — Analysis of Liang Qichao’s Liberalism, Journal of Wuhan University,Humanities Science,2009(3).