景觀圖像與風(fēng)景園林

在漫長的風(fēng)景園林發(fā)展史中，人們不斷創(chuàng)造各種圖像（圖示），以求更方便地記錄、分析、評價和創(chuàng)造景觀，這些圖像（圖示）包括繪畫、地圖、平面圖、立面圖、剖面圖、透視圖、模型、照片和視頻，等等。

圖像都具有概括、簡化、抽象和片段化的特點(diǎn)，都是對其表現(xiàn)對象進(jìn)行部分取舍后的呈現(xiàn)，而景觀卻無所不包，它不僅具有自然和文化等多重屬性，還在動態(tài)地演變著，所以用任何一種圖像都無法表達(dá)出景觀的全方位信息。

圖像的繪制還不可避免地受到繪圖者有意識的主觀意圖或其潛意識中的文化范式的影響，所以不同的人對同一景觀會有完全不同的圖像表達(dá)，比如同樣是對中國園林的描繪，18世紀(jì)歐洲傳教士繪制的銅版畫和中國畫家畫的山水畫就展現(xiàn)出大相徑庭的面貌。

我在撰寫博士論文期間曾讀過美國建筑師摩爾（Charles W.Moore）于1993年出版的《園林詩學(xué)》（The Poetics of Gardens）一書。摩爾用大量手繪圖示，特別是分層圖示對世界各地的園林做了獨(dú)辟蹊徑的分析。他將園林中的地形、植物、水面和建筑等剝離開來，分成不同的層，分別畫出不同層的平面圖或軸測圖，通過這些圖示，讀者可以更清晰更直觀地把握每個園林的空間和結(jié)構(gòu)，從而更好地理解各類園林的特點(diǎn)。

摩爾也用這種方法對拙政園進(jìn)行了分層分析，但與對歐洲園林的圖示分析相比，對拙政園的分析就顯得頗為勉強(qiáng)。原因在于與歐洲歷史園林不同，中國的文人園林本就不是依據(jù)平立剖面圖設(shè)計(jì)出來的。中國園林中的山、石、水、植物和建筑是融為一體、不可分割的。將中國園林中的各種要素分離，繪出分層圖示，看似理性科學(xué)，而實(shí)質(zhì)上卻是機(jī)械地看待中國園林，忽視了中國園林特有的有機(jī)隨意和模糊神秘的特質(zhì)。

相比于這些分層圖示，《園林詩學(xué)》中引用的幾幅圓明園40景圖詠更能反映出中國園林的空間本質(zhì)。我們今天可以用多種不同的圖像媒介來分析中國園林，但任何圖像與其表現(xiàn)對象之間都存在不一致性。我認(rèn)為，最能真實(shí)地表達(dá)中國園林空間和結(jié)構(gòu)的圖像還是中國的山水畫，因?yàn)橹袊鴪@林特有的山水融合、詩情畫意、重寫意、言意境、講韻味、表高潔的品質(zhì)也只有中國山水畫能夠體現(xiàn)出來。事實(shí)上，中國古代的造園家與畫家本就是合二為一的，著名的造園家?guī)缀踅怨だL事。畫中寓詩情，園林參畫意，山水畫就是紙上的園林，園林就是現(xiàn)實(shí)中的山水畫。

這也許就是為什么今天我們模擬中國傳統(tǒng)園林所建造的幾乎所有作品都不具有歷史園林的神韻的原因——今天的園林都是通過平立剖面圖進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)推敲，依據(jù)準(zhǔn)確的工程圖進(jìn)行施工建造的，這些設(shè)計(jì)圖和工程圖在本質(zhì)上與摩爾書中的分層圖示并沒有差別。通過這些圖示設(shè)計(jì)和建造出的園林即使具有中國古代園林的外表，也往往失去了古代園林的精神。

如此可見，設(shè)計(jì)成果在很大程度上受制于設(shè)計(jì)媒介。圖像是設(shè)計(jì)師的工作語言，也是設(shè)計(jì)師傳遞建造信息的方法和手段。不同的圖像思考會帶來不同的設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)果，就如同山水畫造就了獨(dú)特的中國園林，而透視圖則影響了歐洲文藝復(fù)興和巴洛克時期的園林。

許多著名的設(shè)計(jì)師都有獨(dú)特的圖像工作方式。我在博士論文中提到了英國園林師萊普頓（Humphry Repton），他曾創(chuàng)造了透明圖紙疊加的設(shè)計(jì)方法，用水彩將現(xiàn)狀透視圖和設(shè)計(jì)透視圖分別畫在透明紙上，通過將兩張圖進(jìn)行疊加比較，現(xiàn)場的改變和設(shè)計(jì)后的效果便一目了然。用這樣的疊圖方法，他將許多原野改造為優(yōu)美如畫的風(fēng)景。

仍然是在讀博士期間，我曾考察過英國建筑師斯特林（James Stirling）設(shè)計(jì)的幾棟建筑，特別是斯圖加特國立美術(shù)館。這個建筑內(nèi)外空間的交融以及建筑與城市街道的銜接非常奇妙，這吸引我查閱了更多斯特林的設(shè)計(jì)資料。我發(fā)現(xiàn)他的設(shè)計(jì)軸測圖極為獨(dú)特，尤其是一些建筑的底視軸測圖?；蛟S正是通過這些獨(dú)特的圖示，他看到了更多別人見不到的視角，他的建筑也因此與眾不同。

針對于不同類型的設(shè)計(jì)，設(shè)計(jì)師可以選擇最有效和最恰當(dāng)?shù)膱D像媒介表達(dá)。孫筱祥先生在中國最早使用等高線豎向圖，設(shè)計(jì)出了杭州花港觀魚舒緩起伏的地表；孟兆禎院士用獨(dú)特的聚丙乙烯熨燙假山模型的工作方法，創(chuàng)作了北京奧運(yùn)森林公園中的“林泉高致”山水景觀；古斯塔夫森（Kathryn Gustafson）慣用黏土模型來分析、研究、表達(dá)和展示地表的變化；我自己也曾通過紙模型推敲出新加坡花園節(jié)上的一個空間復(fù)雜的小花園。

隨著時代的發(fā)展，今天的設(shè)計(jì)師能夠使用的圖像媒介更為多樣。數(shù)字技術(shù)可以讓人們在虛擬世界中看到設(shè)計(jì)空間的形態(tài)、質(zhì)感、光影，以及在其中的動態(tài)體驗(yàn)，并預(yù)知規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)行為對某些環(huán)境因素可能產(chǎn)生的影響；借助VR技術(shù)，人們可以在虛擬空間獲得身臨其境的體驗(yàn)；3D打印技術(shù)可以按照任何比例真實(shí)展現(xiàn)各種復(fù)雜設(shè)計(jì)的整體或局部……由這些技術(shù)導(dǎo)出的圖紙、圖示、影像、視頻、模型等都為我們研究和傳達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)提供了非常直觀和準(zhǔn)確的方式，并有可能反過來改變我們傳統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)思維。未來，借助數(shù)字技術(shù)將衍生出更多種類的圖像媒介，這些圖像媒介為設(shè)計(jì)師的創(chuàng)造帶來無限的可能，也為公眾理解、感受和體驗(yàn)景觀提供了更直接的途徑。

景觀圖像在不斷地發(fā)展著，雖然繪畫、圖紙和手工模型仍然是設(shè)計(jì)傳統(tǒng)的一部分，但新的媒介帶來了更多的展示和傳達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)的選擇。風(fēng)景園林師需要不斷地學(xué)習(xí)，自覺地使用合適的圖像媒介，更好地推演設(shè)計(jì)、傳達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)信息和展示設(shè)計(jì)成果。

主編：王向榮教授

2017年12月10日

Landscape Image in Landscape Architecture

Through the long-run history of landscape architecture, people constantly create a variety of images (diagrams) in order to more conveniently record, analyze, evaluate and create the landscape.These images (diagrams) include drawings, maps, plans, elevations,sections, perspectives, models, photographs, videos, etc.

Images are characterized by generalization, simplification,abstraction and fragmentation which are all presented after partial selection of the designated objects.But the landscape is allencompassing.It not only owns multiple attributes such as nature and culture, but also evolves dynamically, so it cannot express the comprehensive information of landscape with any kind of image.

Image is also inevitably influenced by the drawer's conscious and subjective intentions or cultural background subconsciously,so that different people may have completely different image representations of the same landscape.For example, the drypoint created by 18thcentury European missionary and landscape paintings by Chinese artists are on a completely different look regarding to the same depiction of Chinese gardens.

When I was writing my doctoral dissertation, I once readThe Poetics of Gardenswritten by American architect Charles W.Moore in 1993.Moore used a plenty of hand-drawn diagrams,especially layering diagrams, making a unique analysis of gardens worldwide.He sliced the landform, vegetation, water and architecture into different layers and drew plans or axonometric drawings of separated layers.Through these diagrams, readers can grasp the space and structure of each garden more clearly and intuitively, so as to better understand the characteristics of various types of garden.

Moore also used this method to analyzeHumble Administrator Gardenin layers.Yet compared with the graphic analysis of European gardens, that of Chinese gardens seem rather reluctant.The reason is that, unlike European historical gardens, Chinese literati gardens are not designed on the basis of plans, sections and elevations.The mountains and hills, rockeries, water, plants and architectures in Chinese gardens are integrated as a whole and inseparable.Although it seems rational and scientific to split off all elements in the garden and draw a layered diagram, in essence it is a mechanical perspective on Chinese garden, ignoring the specific characteristic of organic randomness and vague mysteriousness of Chinese garden.

Compared with these layering diagrams, several pieces of the 40-view Drawings of Old Summer Palace cited inThe Poetics of Gardenscan better reflect the spatial essence of Chinese gardens.Today we can use a variety of image medias to analyze Chinese gardens, but any image expression is inconsistent with its object.In my perspective, the image that can most truthfully express the space and structure of Chinese gardens is still Chinese landscape paintings.Because the unique qualities of Chinese gardens can only be exactly reflected in Chinese landscape painting, which includes the mountain and water integration, poetry and idyllic expression,freehand drawing, artistic conception, lingering charm and noble motif.In fact, ancient Chinese gardeners and painters were united,and almost famous gardeners were also good at painting.The painting contains the poetic emotions while the garden contains the picturesque conceptions.Thus landscape painting is the garden on the paper and in turn the garden makes the landscape painting in reality.

And that's probably why almost all the Chinese traditional gardens we're simulating today is in absence of the charm of historical gardens.Nowadays, all landscapes are designed by plans,sections and elevations, and constructed according to accurate engineering drawings.These designs and engineering drawings are essentially of no difference from the layering diagrams in Moore's book.Even though the gardens designed and constructed through these diagrams have the appearance of ancient Chinese gardens,they easily fail to embodying the spirit of ancient gardens.

As such, design results are largely constrained by the design media.Image is not only the working language of designers, but also the method and tool for designers to transmit construction information.Different thinking of image will lead to different design results, just as landscape painting has created the unique Chinese garden, while perspective has influenced the European Renaissance and gardens in Baroque period.

Many famous designers have their unique ways of image working.British landscape designer Humphry Repton, whom I’ve mentioned in my doctoral dissertation has once created a design method by overlaying transparent drawings, using watercolor to draw the current site perspective and design perspective on transparent paper separately, superimposing the two papers and comparing the changes, thus the outcome of the design will be clear at a glance.By doing so, he transformed many wild fields into picturesque landscapes.

As a doctorand, I visited several buildings designed by British architect James Stirling, especially the Stuttgart National Gallery.The blended inside and outside space, the connection between the building and city streets were fantastic, which led me to read more about Stirling's design, through which I found his axonometric drawing extremely unique, especially some architectural axonometric drawings from bottom view.Perhaps it was through these unique diagrams that he saw more perspectives than anyone else, which finally made his architecture outstanding.

Regarding to various types of design, designers may choose the most effective and appropriate image media for expression.Mr.Sun Xiaoxiang was the first to use contour line to depict an elevation map in China, which contributed the smooth and wavy land surface in theHua Gang Guan Yu Parkin Hangzhou.Academician Meng Zhaozhen created the landscape ofLin Quan Gao Zhiin Beijing Olympic Forest Park with his unique rockery method of pressing model with polypropylene.Kathryn Gustafson uses clay models to analyze, study, and express the changes of land surface habitually.And I have once designed a small garden at the Singapore Garden Festival with its complex space structure deliberated by paper models.

With the development through times, designers can use more diverse image media today.Digital technology allows people to see the shape, texture, light and shadow of the designed space in the virtual world, as well as experience in it dynamically, and predict the possible impact of planning and design behavior on some environmental factors.With the help of VR technique,people can get an immersive experience in virtual space.3D printing can exactly depict the whole or part of the complex design in any proportion...The drawings, diagrams, images,videos and models derived from these techniques provide us with a very intuitive and accurate way to accomplish design research and expression, and may change our traditional design thinking in turn.In the future, digital technology will give rise to more kinds of image media, which will not only bring unlimited possibilities for designers’ creation, but also provide a more straightforward way for the public to understand, feel and experience the landscape.

Landscape images are constantly evolving.Yet paintings,drawings and manual models are still part of the design tradition,new medias have brought more and better options for presenting and delivering design proposals.Landscape architects need to continually learn and consciously utilize the appropriate image media to better deductively design, deliver design information and present design results.

Translator: WANG Xi-yue

Chief Editor: Prof.WANG Xiang-rong

December 10th, 2017