建筑學(xué)與對(duì)尺度、精準(zhǔn)性和可預(yù)測(cè)性的吸納

弗朗西斯卡·弗拉索達(dá)提/Francesca Frassoldati

徐知蘭 譯/Translated by XU Zhilan

建筑學(xué)與對(duì)尺度、精準(zhǔn)性和可預(yù)測(cè)性的吸納

弗朗西斯卡·弗拉索達(dá)提/Francesca Frassoldati

徐知蘭 譯/Translated by XU Zhilan

“在中世紀(jì)后期和文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期，歐洲出現(xiàn)新的現(xiàn)實(shí)世界模型。定量模型剛剛開始取代古代的定性模型。哥白尼和伽利略、許多相繼自學(xué)成才通曉如何建造優(yōu)質(zhì)大炮的工匠、那些在地圖上繪制出新發(fā)現(xiàn)大陸的海岸線的制圖者，還有管理著新興帝國(guó)的官僚、運(yùn)營(yíng)東西印度公司的企業(yè)家，以及部署和控制著新興財(cái)富流向的銀行家等等——這些人都在以定量的方式理解現(xiàn)實(shí)世界?！盵1]

盡管克羅斯比1）的著作既沒(méi)有針對(duì)建設(shè)活動(dòng)，也沒(méi)有就建筑學(xué)進(jìn)行具體討論，然而作為14世紀(jì)和15世紀(jì)歐洲重要特征的文化與技術(shù)革新，也是建筑設(shè)計(jì)作為獨(dú)立專業(yè)之肇始的標(biāo)識(shí)。各種建筑史和藝術(shù)史的研究已經(jīng)探討了若干問(wèn)題，包括在空間的表達(dá)中常規(guī)性地采用尺寸標(biāo)注方法，紙張相對(duì)便宜的價(jià)格使它成為可隨身攜帶的輕便選擇，從而推動(dòng)了用草圖來(lái)表達(dá)空間概念的方式，以及為信息共享的目的將圖像固定印制在媒介上所產(chǎn)生的影響。同樣與之相關(guān)的是，技術(shù)創(chuàng)新在思想和理論傳播方式中所扮演的角色，例如機(jī)械印刷，還包括與文字編輯成果的特定結(jié)構(gòu)的關(guān)聯(lián)。一場(chǎng)就古典主義和諧形式的理想原則進(jìn)行的爭(zhēng)論——配以視覺(jué)信息的輔助——得到了廣泛傳播，它迅速地取代了只有為數(shù)不多的幾份謄寫稿的古代手卷，這些手卷幾乎沒(méi)有任何配圖，并因此發(fā)展出了以定性描述和比較方法為基礎(chǔ)的敘事方式。

實(shí)際上，認(rèn)知世界的定性概念和定量概念之間的沖突甚至延續(xù)至今天建筑學(xué)進(jìn)行描述、溝通和討論的方式中。中世紀(jì)時(shí)期的智者先賢與旅行家們的著作和信件表達(dá)了以固有性質(zhì)思考和描述世界的方式。在當(dāng)時(shí)，建筑學(xué)包含了不證自明的信息——盡管在我們看來(lái)，閱讀那些著作猶如參與一場(chǎng)沒(méi)有指明規(guī)則的游戲。不同的是，從復(fù)雜現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的建成形式中抽象出規(guī)則和規(guī)律并進(jìn)行思考，或?qū)⒏鞣N思想組織為因果關(guān)系或關(guān)聯(lián)關(guān)系，則是迄今為止建筑學(xué)司空見慣的手法。我們應(yīng)該牢記，形成這些“自然而然”的推理方法所必須的一系列前提在15世紀(jì)之前的歐洲還尚未出現(xiàn)。它們產(chǎn)生自學(xué)術(shù)共同體的出現(xiàn)和由受過(guò)教育的被資助者所構(gòu)成的組織，這些人更容易在腦海中對(duì)建成空間的圖紙進(jìn)行解讀和視覺(jué)化——或甚至從世俗的建筑物中進(jìn)行抽象。這兩個(gè)概念——即專業(yè)共同體的出現(xiàn)和建立在視覺(jué)形象基礎(chǔ)上的簡(jiǎn)化抽象能力，其實(shí)相輔相成——由此可以得出結(jié)論，在建筑學(xué)中，我們不僅有可能抽象地探討無(wú)法直接檢驗(yàn)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)（無(wú)論這些假設(shè)是否可被證明是正確的，唯一最重要的是：古代古典主義的建筑廢墟作為整體在圖紙上進(jìn)行推敲而無(wú)需被重建的經(jīng)驗(yàn)），也可以對(duì)其具有的現(xiàn)實(shí)程度足以被模擬、計(jì)算和批評(píng)的假設(shè)事件進(jìn)行抽象的探討，這是值得深思的。

西方世界建筑學(xué)專業(yè)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化過(guò)程就建立在這一前提下。如果說(shuō)今天影像制作的技術(shù)似乎正在質(zhì)疑我們觀察世界的方式，并改變了我們的視覺(jué)環(huán)境，那么科技革新則對(duì)形成于文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的建筑觀察原則和建筑學(xué)訓(xùn)練方法所仰賴的社會(huì)文化框架提出了挑戰(zhàn)[2]。

有3個(gè)具體的理念值得我們進(jìn)一步進(jìn)行關(guān)注：（1）認(rèn)為建成作品脫離了采用符號(hào)系統(tǒng)圖紙預(yù)先布置的概念；（2）在腦海中以具有尺度的清晰圖像進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)的行為本身，表達(dá)現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的哲學(xué)完美，并以描述性的再創(chuàng)造為特征； （3）以建立在視覺(jué)基礎(chǔ)上的推理過(guò)程的傳播作為社會(huì)技術(shù)的創(chuàng)新。

象征性語(yǔ)言vs視覺(jué)化表達(dá)

“通常，中世紀(jì)時(shí)期的文稿對(duì)兩座建筑進(jìn)行比較時(shí)，現(xiàn)代讀者可能會(huì)疑惑作者如何能看出兩者之間有任何相似之處?！盵3]2“中世紀(jì)時(shí)期奇怪地缺乏準(zhǔn)確度的描述不僅出現(xiàn)在對(duì)建筑圖案的描述上，也出現(xiàn)在對(duì)所有幾何形式的描述中……看起來(lái)似乎對(duì)某些形狀的模仿并不是為其本身的目的，而是為了它所暗示的其他事物[3]7-8?！?/p>

在以采用符號(hào)標(biāo)注的設(shè)計(jì)和透視圖表達(dá)方案之前，人們利用其他方式表現(xiàn)建筑。今天的這種方式以其對(duì)各種相對(duì)的和相關(guān)的對(duì)比概念或現(xiàn)場(chǎng)試錯(cuò)檢驗(yàn)的依賴代表了頗為有趣的文化前沿。盡管商業(yè)協(xié)議中通常會(huì)非常精確地指定某些建筑材料，但對(duì)建筑形式與結(jié)構(gòu)卻不會(huì)這樣深入探討；在那些比較性的描述中——至少在克勞泰默爾2）的作品所提到的例子里——在根據(jù)中世紀(jì)的文獻(xiàn)認(rèn)為具有類似性質(zhì)的現(xiàn)存建筑中之間，我們沒(méi)能找到任何精確的幾何對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系。這些中世紀(jì)的語(yǔ)言描述把一系列單一要素從建筑中孤立出來(lái)，如為了把一些建筑與某些偉大的先例定義為“相似的”或是受其啟發(fā)，建筑物內(nèi)部某些位置上的柱子或柱墩數(shù)量就比完整的建筑布局更重要（如在克勞泰默爾研究的圣墓教堂3）一例中）?；\統(tǒng)地說(shuō)，在中世紀(jì)的建筑學(xué)中，圖紙是邊緣事務(wù)，并且在圖紙和建筑之間也缺乏我們所謂的“精確”（也就是可測(cè)量的）對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系。

"During the late Middle Ages and Renaissance a new model of reality emerged in Europe. A quantitative model was just beginning to displace the ancient qualitative model. Copernicus and Galileo, the artisans who taught themselves to make good cannon after another, the cartographers who mapped the coasts of newly contacted lands, the bureaucrats and entrepreneurs who managed the new empires and East and West India companies,the bankers who marshaled and controlled the streams of new wealth – these people were thinking of reality in quantitative terms"[1].

Despite neither construction activities nor architecture fnd specifc attentions in Crosby's work,the cultural and technical shift that characterised 14th and 15th century Europe also marked the very origin of architectural design as an independent profession. Diferent research works in architectural and art history have dealt with the naturalization of measurement in spatial representation, the expression of spatial ideas by means of sketches,which developed thanks to the availability of paper as a relatively cheap portable support, and the impact of fixing images on media for the purpose of sharing. Also relevant is the role of technical innovation, such as mechanical printing, in the way in which ideas and theories were circulated,including in relation to the very structure of editorial products. A widespread debate on the ideal principles of classic harmony, accompanied by visual messages, rapidly replaced ancient manuscripts in unique copies that rarely included pictures and had developed for that reason a narrative based on descriptive qualities and comparisons.

Indeed, the tension between qualitative and quantifiable perceptions of the world is inherent in the way in which architecture is described,communicated and discussed even today. Thinking and describing the world in terms of intrinsic qualities was what the Middle Ages transferred to us through volumes and letters compiled by wise sages and travellers. At that time, architecture embodied self-evident messages, even if reading them was, to us, like a game with no instructions.Instead, the thinking and abstracting of rules and laws out of the complex reality of built forms, or arranging thoughts as chains of causations and concatenations, are hitherto common operations in the architectural discipline. We should remember that these "natural" ways of reasoning had required a number of conditions that were manifested no earlier than 15th century Europe.They emerged from the presence of a technical community and a panel of educated recipients who were able to read and visualize drawings of the built space more easily in their minds – or even separately from – mundane architectural matters. These two notions, the presence of a professional community and the power of simplified abstraction based on visualization, are indeed relevant: from there, it follows that, in architecture, not only is it possible to abstractly discuss experiences that cannot be directly tested (one and foremost: the experience of the ancient classic ruins that are studied as a whole in drawings without being rebuilt, whether or not such hypotheses proved to be correct), but also,hypothetical occurrences that are sufficiently realistic to be simulated, calculated, criticised, etc.are worthy of consideration.

The Western standardization of the profession has been grounded on this mind-set. If nowadays image-making technologies seem to question our way of seeing the world and modify our visual environment, technological change challenges the socio-cultural framework on which the principles of seeing architecture, and its training, were established during the Renaissance[2].

Three specific threads of thoughts deserve further attention: (1) the notion of construction work as separate from the predisposition of drawings that adopt a notational system; (2) the very act of designing with a measurable idea in mind as the expression of the metaphysical perfection of reality in a clear image to be distinguished by its descriptive reproduction; (3) the circulation of a visual-based reasoning as a socio-technical innovation.

The language of symbolic vs. visual representation

"Often when two buildings are compared with one another in mediaeval writings the modern reader may wonder how the author came to see any resemblance between the two"[3]2. "The peculiar lack of precision in mediaeval descriptions not only of architectural patterns but of all geometrical forms… would seem as though a given shape were imitated not so much for its own sake as for something else it implied"[3]7-8.

Before the codification of notated design and perspective, alternative models of discourse around architecture were utilised. Today, these represent an interesting cultural frontier in their reliance on relative and relational concepts of comparison or on-site trial and error verification. Although there are very precise references to building materials as part of commercial agreements,forms and structures are not discussed as such,and in comparative descriptions – at least in the cases presented in Krautheimer's work – we found no precise geometrical correspondence among existing buildings that are grouped on the basis of similar qualities according to medieval sources of information. These mediaeval verbal depictions isolate a selection of single elements from the whole building, such as the number of columns or piers in particular positions within the building,which matter more than the complete layout, in order to define buildings as "similar" or inspired by significant references (e.g. the Holy Sepulchre in the case studied by Krautheimer). Generally speaking, drawings were marginal items in medieval architecture, and there was a lack of what we call a"precise" (i.e. measurable) correspondence between drawings and buildings.

其實(shí)，中世紀(jì)時(shí)期人工制品的美感與其對(duì)神圣性的展現(xiàn)直接相關(guān)，卻排除了復(fù)雜的分析手段：永生的建筑——如天主教堂——必須在與眾生對(duì)話的同時(shí)，也與實(shí)用主義的建造者和受過(guò)教育的神職人員對(duì)話——初見之物即為上帝的顯現(xiàn)，就其本身而言，并不需要更進(jìn)一步的校驗(yàn)。然而真正通過(guò)藝術(shù)作品變得可見的“對(duì)象”卻遠(yuǎn)非事物的物質(zhì)屬性[4]，如建筑的物質(zhì)屬性。不如說(shuō)，圖紙強(qiáng)調(diào)了事物固有的原則和規(guī)律，正如維拉爾·德·奧內(nèi)庫(kù)爾4）在最早的建筑草圖中所繪制的圖案。草圖中出現(xiàn)了許多幾何形狀，但我們并不很清楚它們的用途；而且，在許多情況下，由幾何形狀疊加形成的建筑形式只說(shuō)明了圖紙是一種表達(dá)普遍規(guī)律、說(shuō)明不同要素和抽象特征之間相互關(guān)系的復(fù)雜技巧，而不具有描述性的特征。

如果比較維拉爾·德·奧內(nèi)庫(kù)爾和喬托（圖1、2）分別繪制的兩幅宗教建筑圖紙和繪畫，會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)拉昂大教堂含糊不清的空間體積感與斯科洛文尼教堂寫實(shí)主義的重量感截然不同，這是令人震驚的差異。前者的體積感能從描繪細(xì)致、卻又不具有物質(zhì)性的裝飾要素中辨認(rèn)出來(lái)。后一幅繪畫則存在著強(qiáng)烈的空間感，一整個(gè)三維模型被繪制在平整的墻面上，許多單一的建筑要素之間存在著內(nèi)在聯(lián)系，由此形成了這種空間感。盡管許多拱券窗的細(xì)節(jié)在透視圖中并不可見，但我們的眼睛卻已被訓(xùn)練得能補(bǔ)充完整畫面。我們確實(shí)是根據(jù)設(shè)計(jì)、透視和投影關(guān)系來(lái)觀看世界的，而對(duì)其客觀性的信任讓我們相信，這些表達(dá)方式足以讓我們通過(guò)觀察畫面來(lái)認(rèn)識(shí)真實(shí)的建筑。

圖像在建筑學(xué)的思維方式中必不可少。通過(guò)具有誘惑力的幻象，我們能在二維的紙面上操縱三維的現(xiàn)實(shí)，而這些幻象仰賴于有節(jié)制的幾何簡(jiǎn)化過(guò)程和在此之前對(duì)空間物體的精確量化過(guò)程。經(jīng)由視覺(jué)化的過(guò)程，未來(lái)可被預(yù)見，過(guò)去也能復(fù)活至細(xì)致入微的程度，只要具備所有必要的軸向，使之能夠變成真實(shí)的物件即可。然而，文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期采用符號(hào)標(biāo)注和透視方法制圖的過(guò)程則不僅考慮如何將作者的指令傳達(dá)給建造者，在許多情況下，它們更追求15世紀(jì)哲學(xué)家馬爾西利奧·費(fèi)奇諾5）所謂的“一種‘意識(shí)之眼的視角’，力求近似一座建筑存在于建筑師意識(shí)中的柏拉圖理念”[5]335。也就是說(shuō)，這意味著當(dāng)時(shí)的人們并不認(rèn)為設(shè)計(jì)是將“物體的質(zhì)量”變?yōu)楝F(xiàn)實(shí)的操作指令[5]338；而認(rèn)為它應(yīng)該試圖通過(guò)去除偶然事件來(lái)提煉出事物精確的核心概念。

圖像的可預(yù)見性和簡(jiǎn)化

“約15世紀(jì)中期，阿爾伯蒂作為文藝復(fù)興早期的罕世通才最早宣告建筑學(xué)首先是一種思想——它在創(chuàng)作者的頭腦中孕育，在圖紙上以符號(hào)表示，之后由手工匠人嚴(yán)格按照（圖紙和模型傳達(dá)的）指令建造，并不得進(jìn)行絲毫改變。在阿爾伯蒂的設(shè)計(jì)理論中，建筑師的圖紙就是最初的創(chuàng)作行為；可能隨之而來(lái)的有形建筑只是其復(fù)制品，全無(wú)任何新增的知識(shí)價(jià)值?！@就是……為什么是圖紙，而不是磚石和砂漿，成為建筑師實(shí)踐的主要工具，而這一傳統(tǒng)延續(xù)至今?！盵6]128

在這一概念模型中，設(shè)計(jì)師并未建造建筑，卻是建筑的創(chuàng)造者。他們繪制出能夠表現(xiàn)建筑的圖紙，他們的理想則是通過(guò)其他繪圖工作說(shuō)明設(shè)計(jì)理念并使之視覺(jué)化（設(shè)計(jì)理念在建筑師頭腦中以理想幾何形狀的方式表達(dá)出來(lái)）。15世紀(jì)時(shí)探討過(guò)這一問(wèn)題的包括從阿爾伯蒂到馬西里奧·費(fèi)奇諾，他們將建筑學(xué)尊為許多哲學(xué)和科學(xué)爭(zhēng)論的視覺(jué)化過(guò)程，哲學(xué)和科學(xué)這兩者在當(dāng)時(shí)密不可分。視覺(jué)化過(guò)程具有將在時(shí)間或空間上相距甚遠(yuǎn)的不同對(duì)象立刻組合在一起的優(yōu)勢(shì)。自然法則可用數(shù)學(xué)方程來(lái)書寫；音樂(lè)形象也可躍然紙上；哲學(xué)可被編制為一卷卷著作；世界地理也可用地球儀和經(jīng)過(guò)數(shù)學(xué)計(jì)算的地圖來(lái)表現(xiàn)，用來(lái)在同一頁(yè)紙上表達(dá)直線距離和角度。所有這些視覺(jué)化的過(guò)程都擁有類似的簡(jiǎn)化原則，采用了有所節(jié)制的復(fù)雜度刪減法。它們也都在孜孜不倦地追求著隱藏在變化無(wú)常又易于腐敗的日常經(jīng)驗(yàn)背后的穩(wěn)定性和可預(yù)測(cè)性。

由于這一工作方法建立在有能力認(rèn)識(shí)和使用數(shù)學(xué)工具的基礎(chǔ)上，建筑師必須接受教育和訓(xùn)練。各種理論可從留存的文獻(xiàn)中學(xué)到，或通過(guò)研習(xí)古代經(jīng)典作品獲得；然而，由于各種草圖本和建筑方案的收集與歸類，人們有可能獲得更為平易近人的信息傳播方式。它們并不是維拉爾·德·奧內(nèi)庫(kù)爾繪制的那種草圖。歸功于建筑設(shè)計(jì)的方法論概念，作為阿爾伯蒂的晚輩，賽里奧提供了一套具有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化特點(diǎn)的分類目錄，它來(lái)源于經(jīng)過(guò)挑選的古典主義紀(jì)念建筑和一些當(dāng)代建筑，并且可以根據(jù)簡(jiǎn)單而不可能出錯(cuò)的原則進(jìn)行復(fù)制和重新組合。

盡管事實(shí)上賽里奧的訓(xùn)練課程看似只是對(duì)龐大的知識(shí)系統(tǒng)化過(guò)程進(jìn)行了不重要的刪減，其價(jià)值卻在于對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程和建筑學(xué)專業(yè)采用了具有可復(fù)制性的方法?？杀辉O(shè)計(jì)對(duì)象和設(shè)計(jì)工作所承認(rèn)的各種規(guī)則和規(guī)律早已俱備。建筑學(xué)變成更少隨機(jī)發(fā)生事物的結(jié)果，而更多成為社會(huì)和技術(shù)教育的產(chǎn)物，不再被秘密的典籍和必須牢記的建筑師行業(yè)規(guī)則所控制（可以認(rèn)為，維拉爾·德·奧內(nèi)庫(kù)爾的草圖已經(jīng)繪制出了這些規(guī)則中的一部分）。

1 對(duì)真實(shí)建筑的想象/Fantasising on real architectureVillard de Honnecourt, Ms. fr. 19093, Biblioteque Nationale,Paris (13th cent.). Towers of the Laon Cathedral, Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt. In: Carpo, M. (1998). L'architettura dell'età della stampa. Oralità, scrittura, libro stampato e riproduzione meccanica dell' immagine nella storia delle teorie architettoniche. Milano: Jaca Book, p.36.

2 物質(zhì)化的建筑思想/Materialising architectural ideasGiotto di Bondone (1305): Detail of the Last Judgement – Cross and donor portrait. Padova, Scrovegni Chapel.

Indeed, the beauty of artefacts in the Middle Ages was directly associated with divine manifestations, excluding sophisticated analytical tools: prominent buildings, such as cathedrals, had to speak to the crowds as well as to pragmatic builders and educated clergymen:what is visible at first sight as a manifestation of god that, as such, was not in need of further verification. Yet the "what" is made visible by works of art that is far from being the materiality of things[4], for instance, the materiality of buildings. Rather, drawings emphasise intrinsic rules and regularities, such as those drafted in the earliest architectural sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt. Geometrical shapes appear in the sketchbook, but their use is rather obscure to us, and in most cases, the superimposition of geometrical shapes to built forms simply conveys the idea that drawings are a tricky means of expressing general rules, relationships among elements and abstract features instead of possessing descriptive characteristics.

When comparing the two religious buildings drafted by Villard de Honnecourt and painted by Giotto (Fig.1, 2), the striking diference is the vague idea of the spatial solidity of the Laon Cathedral,which is recognisable precisely by its detailed yet immaterial decorative elements as opposed to the realistic gravity of the Scrovegni Chapel. In the latter, spatiality is self-assertive and results from the interconnection among single architectural elements in a whole tridimensional model painted on a fat wall. Although some details of the arched windows are not visible in the perspective, our eye is trained to complete the picture. We do see the world according to design, perspective and projections,and our trust in their objectivity makes us confdent that these representations suffice to recognize the real building by sight from its picture.

Images are substantial in the way in which we practice architectural thinking. The seductive fiction through which tri-dimensional reality can be manipulated on bi-dimensional sheets relies on controlled geometrical simplifications and,before that, the precise quantification of spatial matters. Through visualization, the future can be anticipated and the past revived in detail, with all the necessary directions to make it into a real object.Yet, the Renaissance codification of notational and perspective drawings concerned not only the transposition of instructions from authors to builders, but also pursued in many cases what the 15th century philosopher Marsilio Ficino called "a"mind's-eye view", in seeking to approximate the original Platonic Idea of a building as it existed in the architect's mind"[5]335. This means, in other words, that designing was not intended as the operational indication to make real "the mass of the matter"[5]338; rather, it was an attempt at subtracting contingent matter to extract essential ideas.

The image of predictability and simplifcation

"Around the mid-15th century, Leon Battista Alberti, the universal man of the early Renaissance,was the first to claim that architecture is first and foremost an idea: conceived in the mind of its author, notated in drawings, then built by manual workers who must comply with the instructions they receive (through drawings and models), and follow them without change. In Alberti's theory of design, the architect's drawing is the original act of creation; the physical building that may follow is only a copy, devoid of any intellectual added value…This is how… drawings, rather than bricks and mortar, became, and remain to this day, the main tool of the architect's trade"[6]128.

In this conceptualization, designers are the authors of buildings that they do not build. They make drawings that represent buildings, and their ambition is to convey and visualize ideas (i.e. the one in the architect's mind that is expressed by ideal geometries) through their drawing work.Considering the personalities who elaborated on the matter in the 15th century, from Leon Battista Alberti to Marsilio Ficino, the architectural discipline is dignifed as the visualization of philosophical and scientific debates that were strictly connected at the time. Visualization had the merit of combining,at frst sight, objects that were far from each other in time or space. The law of nature can be written in terms of mathematical formula; music can be visualized on a page; philosophy can be organised into volumes; the world geography can be illustrated in globes and mathematically calculated maps,useful for transferring, on the same sheet, linear distances and angles. All these visualizations share similar principles of simplification by means of a controlled reduction of complexity. They also share the continuous search for stability and predictability hidden in the impermanent and corruptible routinary experience.

3 編篡建筑要素/Codifying architectural elementsSebastiano Serlio (about 1540). Details of the Coliseum; from the Third Book "On antiquities". In: Carpo, M. (1998). Ibid. p.55.

Since this work method is based on the capacity to recognise and use mathematical tools,architects had to be educated and trained. Theories could be learned in the existing treatises or by studying the ancient classics; however, a more approachable transmission was available, thanks to the collections and catalogues of sketchbooks and building solutions. These were not sketchbooks such as the one by Villard de Honnecourt. Thanks to the notion of a methodological approach to architectural design, a generation after Leon Battista Alberti, Sebastiano Serlio provided a catalogue of standardised features that were extracted from selected classic monuments and a few contemporary buildings and could be replicated and recombined according to simple and unmistakable rules.

Despite the fact that Serlio's training programme seems to be a minor reduction of a great systematization of knowledge, its value is the method of duplicability applied to the design process and the profession. Rules and regularities were ready to be acknowledged in the designed object as well as in the designing work. Architectural work was less the result of casual occurrences and more the product of socio-technical education, no longer controlled by the secretive codes and sets of norms that guilds of construction chiefs had to memorize(arguably, such rules are, in part, illustrated in Villard de Honnecourt's sketches).

建筑學(xué)教育所取得的這一里程碑直接導(dǎo)致的結(jié)果是，以一幅已經(jīng)確定且描繪細(xì)致的圖像作為參考存在著一定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，可能產(chǎn)生與某個(gè)模型相符的、造型正確卻相當(dāng)粗糙的建筑。賽里奧的課程暗含遵守規(guī)則和強(qiáng)制方式的不同程度之間存在沖突——其本意并不是要教育出一班有創(chuàng)造力的設(shè)計(jì)師，而更傾向于教育出經(jīng)過(guò)恰當(dāng)訓(xùn)練的專業(yè)人員，他們擁有同一種思維方式和同一種實(shí)踐表現(xiàn)。

以視覺(jué)化為基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行推理的力量

“既然藝術(shù)家應(yīng)該‘再造’自然事物‘原本的樣子’，他就必須首先了解其本然；其次還需知曉如何對(duì)其進(jìn)行再造。文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的藝術(shù)理論在當(dāng)時(shí)面對(duì)兩大主要問(wèn)題，一是物質(zhì)性的，另一則是形式的或具象的[7]244?！?/p>

以視覺(jué)化為基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行的推理建立在定量思維的基礎(chǔ)上，產(chǎn)生了通過(guò)統(tǒng)一的度量對(duì)世界進(jìn)行有節(jié)制的簡(jiǎn)化的方式。通過(guò)墨守成規(guī)可以取得精確的結(jié)果，甚至假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)謬誤之時(shí)也同樣如此。透視圖已開始成為回應(yīng)文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期一般哲學(xué)原則的理想方式，以特點(diǎn)顯著的單點(diǎn)透視開始，可與被放置在 “宇宙中心”的人相匹配——正如另一位人文主義哲學(xué)家皮科·德拉·米蘭多拉在其名著6）中所述。與平面投影圖相比較，透視圖具有明顯的優(yōu)勢(shì)——它所呈現(xiàn)的內(nèi)容提供了令人信服的錯(cuò)覺(jué)；然而，從技術(shù)角度看，透視圖的幾何學(xué)并不是人類視力的復(fù)制品。透視圖只有一個(gè)視點(diǎn)，而我們的視力卻源自雙眼的同時(shí)觀看，研究各種角度就能產(chǎn)生視錯(cuò)覺(jué)等。文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的寫實(shí)主義因此只是虛構(gòu)的渴望，希望能用一只眼睛觀察世界——即經(jīng)過(guò)篩選的、如神一般的精確幾何綜合體——因此不該希冀它會(huì)遵循物質(zhì)的屬性。大部分15世紀(jì)的理論文獻(xiàn)所收錄的建筑平面與剖面圖，以及后來(lái)出現(xiàn)在帕拉第奧著作中的圖紙，實(shí)際上更好地滿足了在同一頁(yè)紙上對(duì)一整套備選方案進(jìn)行同時(shí)同等分析的需要。

透視圖和投影圖都滿足了對(duì)部分與整體相和諧的追求，并且基于這個(gè)原因，它們所取得的精確性和可預(yù)測(cè)性不僅是幾何學(xué)的正確，也具有構(gòu)圖價(jià)值。這些透視結(jié)構(gòu)不僅用于描述已建成的現(xiàn)存景觀，也是對(duì)新建環(huán)境進(jìn)行想象的工具，它們與任何敘事性的意圖毫無(wú)關(guān)聯(lián)，后者只在某些情況下具有相關(guān)的影響，如理想城市的插圖（圖4）。相反，一幅精心構(gòu)成的透視圖油畫，如皮耶羅·德拉·弗朗西斯卡在《基督受鞭圖》中描繪的虛構(gòu)建筑，可以通過(guò)平面投影的方式進(jìn)行再研究，來(lái)確定比例的協(xié)調(diào)和許多扭曲的建筑要素之間的相互關(guān)系。

然而，另一個(gè)值得我們關(guān)注的方面是，在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期，圖紙變成了建立在簡(jiǎn)化模式基礎(chǔ)上的原調(diào)查分析手段。建筑設(shè)計(jì)者把他們的工藝轉(zhuǎn)化為視覺(jué)形象，從而掌握了操縱視覺(jué)效果的特殊能力，讓其他人觀看這一視覺(jué)效果并最終用以形成一個(gè)觀念或作出一個(gè)決定。也就是說(shuō)，設(shè)計(jì)者在準(zhǔn)備其作品的表現(xiàn)框架時(shí)，有主觀行動(dòng)、并插手干預(yù)了他們的設(shè)計(jì)任務(wù)?！?/p>

譯注

1）艾爾弗雷德·克羅斯比（1931-），美國(guó)歷史學(xué)家，美國(guó)奧斯汀德州大學(xué)歷史、地理和美國(guó)研究專業(yè)的榮譽(yù)退休教授。

2）理查德·克勞泰默爾（Richard Krautheimer，1897-1994），圖像學(xué)藝術(shù)史學(xué)家，曾師從沃爾夫林；將圖像學(xué)的方法運(yùn)用于建筑研究，是基督教與拜占庭建筑權(quán)威。先后在漢堡大學(xué)、紐約大學(xué)等美國(guó)多所大學(xué)任教，對(duì)美國(guó)藝術(shù)史學(xué)的形成具有重要影響。

3）圣墓大教堂位于以色列東耶路撒冷舊城，又稱“復(fù)活教堂”，許多基督徒認(rèn)為教堂的基址即是《新約圣經(jīng)》中描述的耶穌基督死去、安葬和復(fù)活的地方；教堂從公元4世紀(jì)開始成為重要的朝圣目的地。4）維拉爾·德·奧內(nèi)庫(kù)爾是13實(shí)際法國(guó)北部的藝術(shù)家，僅僅通過(guò)留存于世的一本作品集或“草圖本”為人們所知，其中繪制了大約250幅各種不同主題的圖紙和設(shè)計(jì)。

5）馬爾西利奧. 費(fèi)奇諾（1433—1499），意大利學(xué)者和天主教教士，是意大利文藝復(fù)興早期最有影響力的人文主義哲學(xué)家之一。佛羅倫薩柏拉圖學(xué)院派最著名的代表人物，該學(xué)派影響了意大利文藝復(fù)興的方向和進(jìn)程及歐洲哲學(xué)的發(fā)展。

6）皮科·德拉·米蘭多拉（1463－1494）是意大利文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的著名思想家，其著作《論人的尊嚴(yán)》是他在23歲（1486年）寫就的一篇長(zhǎng)篇講演稿，在其中肯定了人在宇宙的中心地位以及現(xiàn)世人生的美好和意義，被稱為“人文主義宣言”。

4 可以信賴的抽象事物/Abstractions made reliableFra Carnevale (about 1480-1484). The Ideal City. Courtesy ofThe Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

5 虛構(gòu)的建筑可以作為真實(shí)的對(duì)象進(jìn)行研究/Fictionalarchitecture can be studied as a real object Wittkower, R. and Carter, B.A.R. (1953). Reconstruction of Plan and Elevation of Piero della Francesca's Flagellation of Christ.Journal of Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 16 (3-4), plate 44.

The immediate result of this milestone in architectural education was that having as a reference a fixed and detailed image was at risk of generating correct yet rather rigid buildings that conform to a given model. A tension between degrees of conformation and coercion was implicit in Serlio's programme: his intent was not to educate a creative class of designers, but more properlytrained professionals who shared a methodology of thinking and an operative performativity.

The power of visual-based reasoning

"Since the artist was supposed to 'reproduce'the things in nature 'as they are' he had to be informed, frst, as to how they are; and, second, as to how they can be reproduced. The art theory of the Renaissance, then, was faced with two main problems, one material and the other formal or representational."[7]244.

Visual-based reasoning, which is built on quantitative thinking, resulted in the implementation of a controlled simplification of the world by means of uniform quanta. By employing conventions, it proved to be precise in its results, even when based on wrong assumptions.Perspective has been the ideal response to the general principles of Renaissance philosophy,starting with the prominence of a single point of vision comparable to the man placed "in the centre of the universe" as another humanist philosopher,Pico della Mirandola, stated in a famous motto.Perspective had the advantage of obviousness when compared to projections: what is represented provides an illusion of trustfulness; however,from a technical point of view, the geometry of perspective is not the replica of human vision.The perspectival point of vision is one, while our sight is made of two eyes working simultaneously,and the study of angles can result in visual distortions, etc. The realism of the Renaissance is thus a fictional aspiration to get a one-eye sight of the world, a filtered god-like synthesis of accurate geometry that should not be thought of as adherent to materiality. Plans and sections of buildings included in most of the theoretical treatises of the 15th century, and later in those of Palladio, better responded to the need to illustrate on one page a whole range of alternatives to be equally and simultaneously analysed.

Perspective as well as projections pleased the search for the harmony of the parts in relation to the whole, and for this reason, their exact and predictable results were not only geometrically correct but also compositionally valuable.Perspective constructions were not only a way of describing existing built landscapes, but also a tool for imagining new ones, disconnected from any particular narrative intent, which in some cases had a relevant influence, such as the illustrations of ideal cities (Fig. 4). Conversely, a carefully built perspectival painting, such as fctional architecture in The Flagellation by Piero della Francesca, could be re-studied in the form of plan projection to confrm proportional harmony and mutual relations among distorted architectural elements.

Yet another consideration deserves our attention inasmuch as drawings became, during the Renaissance, the analytical means of metainvestigations of the mechanisms of simplification on which they were based. Visualizing their crafts,architectural designers operate the special power of manipulating the visual effect that others will see and eventually use to form an opinion or make a decision. In other words, designers do things and step into the scene of their design task when they are preparing the framework for their work to be.□

[1] Crosby, A.W. (1997). The Measure of Reality.Quantification and Western Society, 1250-1600.Cambridge University Press.

[2] Carpo, M. & Lemerle, F. (eds) (2008). Perspective,Projections and Design. Technologies of Architectural Representation. Abingdon: Routledge.

[3] Krautheimer, R. 1942. Iconography of Mediaeval Architecture, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 5: 1–33.

[4] Eco, U. 1987. Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages.New Haven-London: Yale University Press.

[5] Blair Moore, K. 2009. Ficino's Idea of architecture:the "mind's-eye view" in Quattrocento architectural drawings, Renaissance Studies 24(3): 332–352.

[6] Carpo, M. 2013. The Art of Drawing, Architectural Design 83(5): 128 – 133.

[7] Panofski, E. 1955. The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

[8] Choay, F. and Bratton, D. (1997). The Rule and the Model: On the Theory of Architecture and Urbanism.Cambridge: MIT Press.

[9] Wittkover R. and Carter, B.A.R. (1953). The perspective of Piero della Francesca's Flagellation of Christ. Journal of Warburg and Courtauld Institutes,16 (3-4): 292–302.

Architecture and the Naturalization of Measurement, Exactness and Predictability

文化與技術(shù)的革新是14世紀(jì)和15世紀(jì)歐洲的重要特征，其轉(zhuǎn)變與建筑設(shè)計(jì)作為獨(dú)立專業(yè)的肇始有深刻的淵源。建筑史和藝術(shù)史的許多研究已對(duì)其中一些方面進(jìn)行了探討，包括在空間表達(dá)時(shí)采用尺寸標(biāo)注，因紙張可相對(duì)便宜地購(gòu)得讓人們能通過(guò)草圖表達(dá)空間概念，以及機(jī)械印刷的手段如何影響配有插圖、描述思想和理論稿件的編輯和傳播方式。本文在諸多認(rèn)知世界的定性概念和定量概念之間存在矛盾的領(lǐng)域中，探討了透視畫和通過(guò)符號(hào)表達(dá)的設(shè)計(jì)如何不僅象征著人們?cè)诿枋觥贤ê吞接懡ㄖW(xué)方式上的激進(jìn)轉(zhuǎn)變，也成為此后幾個(gè)世紀(jì)諸多專業(yè)爭(zhēng)論的基礎(chǔ)。

The cultural and technical shift that characterised 14th and 15th century Europe is deeply intertwined with the origin of architectural design as an independent profession.Research works in architectural and art history have dealt with the naturalization of measurement in the representation of space, the expression of spatial ideas through sketches,which was made possible by the availability of relatively cheap paper, and the infuence of mechanical printing on the way in which ideas and theories were edited and circulated along with illustrations. The essay explores how the codification of perspective drawings and notated design, among the many fields in which the tension between qualitative and quantifiable perceptions of the world unfolds, represented not only a radical shift in the way architecture was described,communicated and debated, but also the ground for professional debates in centuries to come.

空間測(cè)量，建筑表現(xiàn)，符號(hào)表達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)，透視畫

spatial measurement, architectural representation,notated design, perspective drawing

6 新建筑師的初次亮相/The new architect's debutGiovanni da Sangiovanni (about 1635), Detail of the Celebration of Lorenzo il Magnifco: Giuliano da Sangallo holding in his hands the project of the Villa in Poggio a Caiano.Florence, Pitti Palace. In: Jestaz, B. (1995). Il Rinascimento dell' architettura da Brunelleschi a Palladio. Milan: Electa/Gallimard, p.98.

都靈理工大學(xué)

2017-08-21