Impacts of Climate Change on Leisure Sports Golf TourismFor the World Leisure Sports Foundation Congress

Impacts of Climate Change on Leisure Sports Golf TourismFor the World Leisure Sports Foundation Congress

AccordingtotheInternationalAssociationofGolfingTourOperators,theglobalgolftourismmarketisworthover$20billionperyear,countriesarepromotinggolfasanimportanttourismactivity,andgolftourismexpandingrapidly.ThisstudyinvestigatedtheconsumertrendsandcurrentsituationofgolfrealestateinCaribbeanarea,revealedtheimpactsofclimatechangeongolfcourseconstructionandonleisuresportsgolftourism

leisuresports；golfcourse；golftourism；climatechange；Caribbeanarea

1 Overview

With origins tracing back to 15thcentury Scotland, the modern sport of golf is now played in virtually every country in the world. The growth of golf during the twentieth century was massive. In April 2015 there were 34,011 golf facilities worldwide, with many countries promoting golf as an important tourism activity.[1]

There are an estimated 59 million golfers worldwide, with 58 percent in North America (U.S. and Canada). Of the North American golfers, 5-10 percent, or between 2.9 and 5.9 million, travel overseas each year for the purpose of playing golf.[1]The International Association of Golfing Tour Operators estimates that the global golf tourism market is worth over $20 billion per year and that golf tourists spend considerably more than the average tourist[2].

The total number of golfers has declined in the past decade in North America which has had a flow on impact particularly on golf tourism in the Caribbean.The number of golf courses in the Caribbean is comparatively small, accounting for less than 1 percent of the global total. As seen in Talbe 1, in 2014, there were 121 courses on 24 islands, including the Dominican Republic with 28,Puerto Rico with 20, the Bahamas with 11, Jamaica with 10, and Trinidad and Tobago with 8.[3]These five countries account for 64 percent of the total courses in the Caribbean.

The KPMG further reported in 2014 that there were nine new courses in development, with an additional 21 at the planning phase.[3]In 2015, Cuba, for instance, had only one golf course in Varadero catering to international tourists and another “rather shabby” nine-hole course in Havana. However, with tourism rapidly expanding, Cuba is reported to have plans to construct between six and 12 new courses tied to tourism resorts and vacation home developments.[4]As theNewYorkTimesnotes, these joint ventures with private developers mark an about face for the socialist government: One of Fidel Castro’s first acts upon taking power in 1959 was to “get rid of Cuba’s golf courses” which were seen “as the epitome of bourgeois excess.”[2]

Table 1 Location and Number of Golf Courses in the Caribbean region in 2009 & 2014

Source: KPMG Golf Advisory Practice,CaribbeanGolfOverview2015

The KPMG Golf Advisory Practice has identified four types of golf courses in the Caribbean: (1) stand-alone courses, (2) operated alongside hotels, (3) function in conjunction with residential real estate and/or hotels, and (4) operate only alongside a primarily residential real estate development. There is no dominant international brand in the Caribbean, however international operators managing multiple properties with golf courses include Sandals and Ritz Carlton.[5]In addition, there are many signature-designed championship courses, and the Caribbean has hosted a number of international golf events.[6]

While significant strides have been made in recent years to build and operate more environmentally sustainable and socially sensitive golf courses, land shortages in the Caribbean and declining interest in golf in the U.S. (the principal source market for Caribbean tourism), combined with climate change impacts, raise important questions about the efficacy of expanding this sector of the tourism industry in the Caribbean, and thus for many resort-based tourism areas around the world.

2 Consumer Trends in Golf

As is true for Mexico and Central America, the Caribbean’s golf market is heavily dependent upon U.S. and Canadian visitors. Yet in the U.S.,consumerinterestingolfhasbeendecliningformorethanadecade. The number of so-called “core players” in the U.S. - those who play at least eight games per year - dropped from 17.7 million in 2000 to 15 million in 2006, and to 1213 million in 2007.[7]The total number of all golfers in the U.S. dropped from a peak of 29.8 million in 2000 to 24.1 million in 2013, with the biggest decline being among millennials, the 1834 age group. In addition, in 2013, 158 golf courses in the U.S. closed down while only 14 new courses were built, marking the eighth consecutive year of net closings across the country.[8]

These trends away from golf are being reflected in some new resort developments in the United States that are being built with fewer or without any golf courses. A 2006NewYorkTimesarticle quotes U.S. developer Jim Chaffin who says plans for his 400 home sites near Hilton Head, SC were originally zoned for three golf courses. “And we asked,” recalled Mr. Chaffin, “did we need one golf course, let alone three?”[9]

Despite the trends away from golf in the U.S., many resort developments in the Caribbean and Latin America continue to include golf courses. This is despite indications that U.S. vacationers overseas are no more likely to play golf than they are in the United States.InbothMexicoandCostaRica,forinstance,only2percentofinternationaltouristsplaygolfduringtheirholiday. Most of these players are from the United States.[10]Costa Rica’s dozen courses are much underutilized. This has led one enterprising Costa Rican website to make lemonade from lemons by proclaiming: “Proudly, we offer some of the world’s least crowded golf courses.”[11]

The situation is similar in Mexico, which has over 150 golf courses. According to a study by Mexico’s Ministry of Tourism (SECTUR), there is a “l(fā)ack of demand” among tourists visiting beach resorts where 34 percent of Mexican golf courses are located.[12]

In Mexico, surveys indicate that interest in golf is also not strong among U.S. retirees and second home owners. A 2009 study by the International Community Fund (IFC) of U.S. retirees in coastal communities in Mexico found that more enjoy fishing (30 percent) and bird watching (15 percent) than playing golf (14 percent). The vast majority of respondents prefer to just walk on the beach (77 percent) or relax (71 percent). One of the study’s authors, Anne McEnany states, “Conventional wisdom suggests that U.S. retirees have a preference for golf but our data suggests otherwise.” And the study’s key recommendations include: “Re-think emphasis of real estate development projects with golf courses as a key amenity.”[2]

The picture in the Caribbean is less clear, because there are not accurate statistics on how many U.S. and other international visitors and second home owners actually play golf. The KPMG calculated that in 2014 some 1.1 million of the U.S., Canadian, and European visitors to the Caribbean werepotentialgolf tourists; the largest number - 42 percent or an estimated 650,000 -- were from the U.S.[2]But this does not reflect how many of these North American tourists actually ended up playing golf. According to the KPMG, those figures don’t exist.

In addition, unlike Mexico and Costa Rica where few nationals play golf, in parts of the Caribbean, including the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico which dominate the regional golf market, golf has strong local patronage. The small island of Bermuda is able to sustain a high density of courses within just 20 square miles “due to a greater proportion of resident players and members, reflecting the fact that it has the highest reported GDP per capita of any country in the region.” Further, in Trinidad and Tobago, with eight courses, it is estimated that only about 5 percent of the rounds are played by tourists.[5]However, in the Caribbean there are approximately 8-10 000 individual affiliated players, with an average of 350 members per course. This is significantly lower than at private clubs in the U.S. and Europe and reflects the fact that “the majority of courses in the Caribbean primarily cater to golf tourists.”[2]

As visualized in Figure 1, in the Caribbean as a whole, an estimated 48 percent of the total rounds are played by tourists, mainly from the U.S., Canada, and UK;[2]with the remainder played by nationals and foreign workers and vacation home owners. Courses in the Dominican Republic and Jamaica have a significantly higher share of rounds played by tourists, and in St. Kitts and Nevis an estimated 90 percent of rounds are played by tourists.[5]

Figure 1 Share of Rounds Played by Tourists - All Courses

Source: KPMG (2009).GolfBenchmarkSurvey2009. Regional Report: Benchmark indicators and performance of golf courses in the Caribbean Region, www.golfbenchmark.com

According to the KPMG, “A good benchmark indicator of golf course performance is the average number of rounds per playable days.” Its 2009 study found that the average number of rounds per playable day in the Caribbean was about 60 per day, considerably lower than courses in other destinations: Middle East (110-120), South Africa (90-100), UK and Ireland (80-90). In contrast, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic averaged 35-36 and Bermuda averaged 68, with the rest of the Caribbean averaging 64 rounds played per day.[2]This would indicate that courses in the Caribbean are, like those in Mexico and Costa Rica, relatively under-utilized.

According to the KPMG study, between 2011 and 2014 the total number of registered golfers in the Caribbean increased by 7 percent, a modest rise over a previous period of decline.[1]

Mirroring the U.S., the total number of functioning golf courses in the Caribbean has, however, declined, from 129 in 2009 to 121 in 2014. The KPMG remained optimistic, contending that among these registered golfers “participation in the [Caribbean] regionis growing.” This may simply reflect the growth in overall tourism levels in 2014, as the U.S. recession ended rather than a sign of renewed interest in golf per se.

3 Golf Real Estate

Why have golf courses become standard components of tourism developments? The answer appears to have more to do with real estate speculation than meeting consumer/tourist demands. An SRI study estimated that new golf courses in 2015 generated $3.3 billion in increased real estate value orpremium, that is, the additional amount a buyer is willing to pay for a home or property located on a golf course or in a golf community. Golf courses come second to water features as the most desirable amenities for home owners, and buyers are prepared to pay up to 30 percent more for this premium.[5]According to the KPMG’sGolfBenchmarkSurvey2009 for the Caribbean, “newer golf course developments have been concentrated around mixed-use residential and hotel developments incorporating high-end golf courses and other amenities such as marinas and spas.”[13]

However, according to Tyler Grooms’ analysis in theCornellRealEstateReview, trends are changing. He writes that since the 1990s the golf community model has experienced a slowdown and today, “U.S. golf course developments are overbuilt and represent, to some, a tired model for development-supported amenities.” Furthermore, the author continues, “trends in sustainability have led to the creation of denser and less impactful developments, in contrast to the typical sprawling and ecologically impactful golf developments.”[14]

4 Golf Courses and Climate Change

Developers and politicians often promote golf courses as environmentally benign and beneficial because they contain green space with plants that add oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. According to golf course architect Mike Hurdzan, golf courses “sequester a lot of carbon that reduces global warming.”[15]He argues that golf courses are particularly environmentally friendly when they are built on degraded land such as empty spaces or former industrial sites.

However, when built on pristine, undeveloped land, many of typical features of golf courses often end up contributing to climate change through, for instance, the cutting oftrees, vegetation, and mangroves. Once in operation, golf courses increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by, for example, the building of additional infrastructure, international flights bringing in golf tourists, and use of lawn mowers to groom the landscape. The fast growing creeping bent grasses used on many greens may require mowing as often as twice a day.[16]Mowing a lawn for one hour is the equivalent of driving a gasoline powered car nearly 350 miles.[17]Scientific researchers at Rutgers University say that increasing the genetic diversity in turf grass will be key to making golf courses more resilient to climate change and will mean greens require lower inputs of energy, fertilizer, fungicide, and insecticide.

The need of golf courses for large supplies of fresh water is, however, probably the biggest challenge in the era of climate change. It goes on to state, “Water scarcity could become a limiting factor for tourism development, with serious economic consequences in formerly popular destinations.”[14]In 2008GolfDigestreported that 645 U.S. coastal golf courses that lay less than two meters above sea level will be endangered by sea level rise.

The need to counter the impacts of climate change has been helping to drive new technological innovations.[18]According to Scottish Golf Environment Group (SGEG), “The effect of climate change and how golf is adapting to it - the change in weather patterns, change in rainfall and temperatures - have a big impact on how golf courses are managed.” In Anguilla, for instance, a solar power generator has been installed to provide uninterrupted energy, together with a reverse osmosis desalinization plant, which converts sea water into portable water for use on the island’s single golf course.

The Tourism Concern study forecasts that “climatic changes are almost certainly expected to influence tourist preferences as changes in weather patterns may affect the popularity of certain destinations.”[19]Indeed, there are already signs that climate change is shifting golfing seasons and that this may well have long term economic consequences for golf related tourism in the Caribbean. Climate change in North America and northern Europe is leading to a lengthening of the golf seasons in those locations, the regions supplying the bulk of sport-related tourism to the Caribbean. A 2007 study analyzing historical weather data to determine trends in annual “golf playable days” found that the number of possible golfing days are increasing in 95 U.S. cities, primarily because of higher average temperatures, while about one-third of the U.S. showed “a very challenging combination of more rain and more variability, which makes revenue planning for the weathersensitive golf business more difficult.”[20]According to another analysis, the southern Great Lakes region of Canada, where a large percentage of the golfing population lives, will have as many as 109 additional days in the golf season by the 2080s should current trends continue.

5 Case Study: Golf at Puntacana Resort & Club

The Puntacana Resort & Club, owned by Grupo Puntacana (GPC), includes two golf courses, totaling 45 holes:[21]The 18-hole La Cana, opened in 2001 plus an additional 9 holes added later, and the 18-hole Corales, opened in 2010.In undertaking construction of its first course, GPC realized that the cost of building and operating the course could be greatly reduced if many environmentally friendly features are adopted from the earliest stages of the project.

Today, all of GPC’s golf courses usepaspalumturf grass. This species can be planted on locally occurring crushed limestone and sand, rather than trucking in vast quantities of soil and dirt from other areas of the country. Paspalum withstands salt sea spray and keeps its green color throughout the year, requiring less synthetic inputs. All of this means lower costs and less water consumption.

In addition, GPC recovers all of its wastewater and liquid sewage from its resorts and vacation homes for treatment and reuse on the golf courses.This saves millions of gallons of water annually, reduces pressure on the local aquifer, and reduces the risk of contamination of local groundwater and coastal areas.

Finally, by planning for forest and green areas, water features, and using local vegetation, the GPC golf courses remain viable habitat for many local species of birds, iguanas, and reptiles. The golf courses and surrounding residential communities have become the favorite habitat for many native species. Over the last several years, the Puntacana Ecological Foundation has managed a successful introduction and breeding program around the golf courses for the Ridgway’s Hawk, an endangered species endemic to the Dominican Republic.[22]

6 Conclusion and Key Considerations

Golf courses today are becoming more socially and environmentally sustainable and capable of withstanding the impacts of climate change, though there is much work to do in this vital sector of the leisure sports industry. Currently a wide range of innovative methods in golf course construction and maintenance are being studied and field tested in the U.S. and elsewhere. The United States Golf Association, for instance, has invested more than $18 million in some three dozen research projects on issues such as integrated turfgrass management and breeding and genetics. They have not, however, invested in examining how golf courses can adapt to the realities of climate change.

From an environmental standpoint, golf has come a long way.Going forward, new golf course construction in the Caribbean and elsewhere needs to be built to conform to the criteria of the internationally recognized certification programs and to the best practices for addressing climate change.

[1] HUDSON S. Golf Tourism[M]. Oxford, UK: Goodfellow Publishers Limited, 2009:11.

[2] KPMG GOLF ADVISORY PRACTICE. Caribbean Golf Overview 2015[R/OL].[2017-02-10].http://www.golf2020.com/media/47941/carribbean_golf_overview_2015.pdf :4- 7;9.

[3] ALBERTO C. "Why Golf is a Revolutionary Pursuit in Castro's Cuba?" The Economist. [EB/OL].[2015-08-24].http://babalublog.com/2013/05/24/why-golf-is-a-revolutionary-pursuit-in-castros-cuba/.

[4] RANDAL A. Revolutionary Cuba Now Lays Sand Traps for the Bourgeoisie[J]. The New York Times,2011.

[5] KPMG. Golf Benchmark Survey 2009: Regional Report: Benchmark indicators and performance of golf courses in the Caribbean Region. [R/OL].[2016-05-15].http://www.golfbenchmark.com :5- 7;10.

[6] PAUL V. More Americans are giving up golf, The New York Times.[EB/OL].[2008-02-21].http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/21/nyregion/21golf.html.

[7] TEITMAN J. Construction, play, number of golfers decline in 2013.[EB/OL].[2014-01-31].http://www.turfnet.com/news.html/_/construction-play-number-of-golfers-decline-in-2013-r249.

[8] KAUFMAN J. Vacation Homes: Seeking Birds, Not Birdies[J]. The New York Times,2006,10.

[9] CENTER FOR RESPONSIBLE TRAVEL. Alternative Development Models and Good Practices for Sustainable Coastal Tourism: A Framework for Decision Makers in Mexico.[EB/OL].[2012-03-01].http://www.responsibletravel.org/resources/documents/reports/Alternative%20Coastal%20Tourism%20in%20Mexic o.pdf.

[10] Golf in Costa Rica. [EB/OL].[2015-02-05]. http://www.golfincostarica.com/.

[11] JOAQUIN AG. Golfing Trends and Behavior in Mexico. SECTUR: 12.

[12] MCENANY A. Housing and Real Estate Trends Among Americans Retiring in Mexico's Coastal Communities[R]. Washington, DC: World Bank ,2010.

[13] GROOMS T.Alternatives to Golf Course Developments in an Environmentally Sensitive Market[J]. Cornell Real Estate Review, 2010,13(8):88.

[14] ROSE M L. The Effects of Golf Courses on Global Warming,Golfsmith Golf Tips. [EB/OL].[2015-03-15] http://golftips.golfsmith.com/effect-golf-courses-global-warming-20682.html.

[15] STRAUCH P. A Wildlife Habitat, Maintenance, Water Runoff, and Fertilizer Comparison Between Links, Target, Woodland, and Traditional Golf Course Designs at Moonlight Basin, Montana [D].Michigan :University of Michigan,1994.

[16] Green Facts Go Natural. [EB/OL].[2015-07-10].https://hr.umich.edu/sites/default/files/green-facts-%202015.pdf.

[17] Lavelle M, Wire C. How the Game of Golf Adapts to Global Warming.[EB/OL].[2014-08-18]http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-the-game-of-golf-adapts-to-global-warming/.

[18] CHOUDHURY N. Golf faces tough climate change adaptation drive.[EB/OL].[2013-07-22].http://www.climatechangenews.com/2013/07/22/golf-faces-tough-climate-change-adaptation-drive/.

[19] CYBERGOLF. Study Examines Impact of Climate Change on Golf Industry. [EB/OL].[2007-07-01].http://news.cybergolf.com/golf_news/study_examines_impact_of_climate_change_on_golf_industry.

[20] SCOTT D, JONES B. A regional comparison of the implications of climate change for the golf industry in Canada[J] .The Canadian Geographer,2007, 51( 2):219-232.

[21] Caribbean 'Green' Travel: Your Choices Make a Difference. [EB/OL].[2016-09-01]. http://www.responsibletravel.org. [22] USGA: Turfgrass and Environmental Research Online (TERO).http://usgatero.msu.edu/tero_browse.html.

編譯：陳林會，成都體育學(xué)院經(jīng)管系，博士，副教授，研究方向：體育產(chǎn)業(yè)與管理，E-mail:sophia8600@tom.com。

(編輯 任丹)

約翰·諾萊特，世界休閑體育協(xié)會副主席，美國北德州大學(xué)運(yùn)動健康促進(jìn)及休閑學(xué)系主任，教授。

2017-04-16

2017-05-09

John Nauright1, Anand Rampersad2, Martha Honey3

(1)歐美國家休閑體育發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀。休閑體育引領(lǐng)健康世界。面對洶涌而來的世界性的現(xiàn)代健康危機(jī)，各國紛紛出臺國民健康的政策和辦法，通過開展調(diào)查研究為民眾的體育參與提供數(shù)據(jù)和支撐，還通過體育設(shè)施設(shè)備供給為社會大眾參與體育運(yùn)動鍛煉創(chuàng)造條件。

隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)社會發(fā)展、個人擁有物質(zhì)財富和自由時間的增多，休閑體育作為一種促進(jìn)人類健康的時代力量和新的生活方式、文化現(xiàn)象被社會大眾廣泛關(guān)注和接受。社會大眾逐漸崇尚生命價值的真實(shí)和品質(zhì)；大眾積極休閑觀念的養(yǎng)成、對體驗(yàn)型運(yùn)動休閑方式青睞等也助推了休閑體育的發(fā)展。

休閑健身的理念和實(shí)施成了推動休閑體育、進(jìn)一步發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵一環(huán)；同時我們還要把加快形成有利于健康的生活方式、生態(tài)環(huán)境和經(jīng)濟(jì)社會發(fā)展模式，實(shí)現(xiàn)健康與經(jīng)濟(jì)社會良性協(xié)調(diào)發(fā)展作為基本準(zhǔn)則。

大眾化、多樣化和差異化是法國休閑體育發(fā)展主要趨勢。運(yùn)動休閑在法國的普及程度較高，截至2010年，有89%14周歲以上的法國人至少參加一項(xiàng)休閑體育運(yùn)動。休閑體育運(yùn)動參與人數(shù)的增加，還拓展了休閑體育活動的內(nèi)容和類型。研究(Lefèvre & Thierry, 2010)表明：法國人不但可以同時參與多項(xiàng)體育運(yùn)動，他們還對一些傳統(tǒng)的項(xiàng)目加以創(chuàng)新和發(fā)展；所以，法國人經(jīng)常參與的休閑體育運(yùn)動項(xiàng)目有300余項(xiàng)。法國大眾的休閑體育運(yùn)動參與還呈現(xiàn)出多樣化特點(diǎn)，參與者呈現(xiàn)出巨大的性別、年齡、職業(yè)、形式、規(guī)模等方面的差別；社會大眾參與休閑體育運(yùn)動的目的也是多種多樣，除了競技和表演外，人們賦予休閑體育運(yùn)動保持健康、愉悅身心、形體塑造等多重意義和價值。

加拿大休閑體育發(fā)展主要趨勢。根據(jù)加拿大統(tǒng)計局(Statistics Canada)的數(shù)據(jù)，2012年12歲及以上加拿大人口中，有53.9%(1 560萬)的人經(jīng)常運(yùn)動。2001年-2012年間，加拿大經(jīng)常參與休閑體育運(yùn)動活動的人數(shù)呈現(xiàn)出上升態(tài)勢，其中男性經(jīng)常參與體育鍛煉的比例高于女性。他們把體育參與分為3種類型：體育運(yùn)動(Sport，有規(guī)則、有對手、競爭性)、體力活動(Physical Activity，需要一切的能量消耗及休閑體育鍛煉(Exercise，有計劃、有組織、重復(fù)性的旨在改善或維持身體健康)。

調(diào)查表明：(1)最受加拿大男性歡迎的3項(xiàng)體育運(yùn)動是冰球、高爾夫球和足球，最受加拿大女性歡迎的項(xiàng)目則是高爾夫、足球和游泳。(2)2010年以前步行或慢跑是加拿大人最常參與的休閑活動項(xiàng)目，是加拿大人最常用的休閑體育鍛煉項(xiàng)目。(3)由加拿大健身和生活方式研究所(Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute)完成的研究報告表明：2014年-2015年18歲及以上加拿大人經(jīng)常參加的體力活動的類型有：步行(84%)、園藝或庭院工作(74%)、在家鍛煉(65%)和游泳(58%)等。

澳大利亞體育發(fā)展概況。澳大利亞一直被公認(rèn)為是一個熱愛體育運(yùn)動的國家。澳政府出臺了各種促進(jìn)體育發(fā)展的政策以期增加參與體育運(yùn)動人口數(shù)量、提升精英運(yùn)動員成績、增進(jìn)社會包容度、改善大眾心理健康、幫助老年人保持獨(dú)立并提升他們的生活質(zhì)量、推動社會變革。2015年澳大利亞人僅在體育館、健身房、休閑中心的體育和休閑活動花費(fèi)就超過107億美元。澳大利亞90%以上的體育和體育娛樂從業(yè)人員都在私營部門就業(yè)。

但令人擔(dān)憂的是：近年來久坐的成年人和兒童數(shù)量大幅增加，肥胖和其他與不運(yùn)動相關(guān)的健康問題日益增多。澳大利亞統(tǒng)計局的數(shù)據(jù)(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014)表明，參加體育運(yùn)動和休閑體育娛樂活動的澳大利亞人數(shù)量有所減少，會員制體育和休閑俱樂部的會員人數(shù)有所下降。究其根源：社會變化、政治決定、經(jīng)濟(jì)條件和人口變化等相互作用導(dǎo)致體育志愿者工作時間減少。志愿者一直是澳大利亞非營利性社區(qū)體育和娛樂團(tuán)體運(yùn)營的關(guān)鍵因素，但受人口結(jié)構(gòu)的變化、就業(yè)模式和利益相關(guān)者的期望等因素影響，體育志愿者工作時間正在減少。

隨著休閑方式變革、人口結(jié)構(gòu)變化、體育發(fā)展商業(yè)化和全球化對澳大利亞的休閑娛樂和體育運(yùn)動發(fā)展的影響逐漸深入，體育發(fā)展既要積極變革以適應(yīng)青少年休閑體育運(yùn)動偏好，又要主動尋求非政府組織的資助，還要努力探索“商業(yè)化”背景下體育組織的運(yùn)營模式。

氣候變化對休閑體育高爾夫旅游的影響。據(jù)估計，全世界有34 011個高爾夫球場；全球高爾夫旅游市場每年的產(chǎn)值超過200億美元，許多國家已將高爾夫作為重要的旅游產(chǎn)品來開發(fā)。加勒比海地區(qū)的高爾夫球場數(shù)量較少，占全球高爾夫球場總數(shù)的不到1%(121個，截至2014年)；球場運(yùn)營的模式有4種：單獨(dú)運(yùn)營的球場、與酒店共同運(yùn)營、與住宅房地產(chǎn)和/或酒店合作運(yùn)營、只與主要的住宅房地產(chǎn)合作運(yùn)營。加勒比地區(qū)的高爾夫市場曾主要依賴美國和加拿大的游客。然而，比起打高爾夫(14%)，北美的游客現(xiàn)在更喜歡釣魚(30%)、賞鳥(15%)、在沙灘上漫步(77%)或放松休憩(71%)。

高爾夫球場經(jīng)營和高爾夫球旅游發(fā)展與氣候密切相關(guān)。一方面，全球氣候變化也延長了全球北部地區(qū)的高爾夫球季。另一方面，高爾夫球場項(xiàng)目建設(shè)也可能會因砍伐樹木、植被和紅樹林等導(dǎo)致氣候變化；投入運(yùn)營的高爾夫球場會通過增加溫室氣體排放及其對淡水的大量需求等形式影響氣候變化。

所以，高爾夫球場建設(shè)與運(yùn)營應(yīng)更加注重對環(huán)境的保護(hù)。除了研究草坪管理、培育草種外，我們更應(yīng)該關(guān)注高爾夫球場如何適應(yīng)氣候變化的客觀現(xiàn)實(shí)。加勒比和其他地區(qū)的新高爾夫球場建設(shè)除了必須符合國際公認(rèn)項(xiàng)目標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，還要積極探索冷卻大氣、防止侵蝕、給地下水補(bǔ)給和應(yīng)對氣候變化的最佳做法。

(2)歐美國家休閑體育發(fā)展對中國的啟示。觀念的轉(zhuǎn)變，讓理念主導(dǎo)休閑體育發(fā)展方式變遷。體育及休閑體育既是提高人民健康水平，又是推動體育消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)升級和體育產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展的重要力量。另外，社會大眾對體育及休閑的認(rèn)識是推進(jìn)休閑體育及體育發(fā)展方式大變革關(guān)鍵：休閑體育發(fā)展既需要社會大眾重視，又需要全社會積極參與。 方式的創(chuàng)新，讓社會和市場成為推動休閑體育發(fā)展的核心力量。一方面發(fā)揮協(xié)會、高校、俱樂部、企業(yè)等在提供和生產(chǎn)多元化休閑體育產(chǎn)品及服務(wù)方面的職能和職責(zé)，以緩解當(dāng)前休閑體育產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)供給總體不足與需求不斷增長之間的矛盾。另一方面，發(fā)揮市場機(jī)制配置休閑體育資源的決定性作用，讓市場邏輯和效率邏輯主導(dǎo)休閑體育的發(fā)展。 文化培育，讓濃厚的文化氛圍為休閑體育發(fā)展提供滋養(yǎng)。政府部門主導(dǎo)休閑體育設(shè)施設(shè)備供給和制度供給，為休閑體育發(fā)展提供物質(zhì)和制度文化層面的保障和支持；加強(qiáng)宣傳和引導(dǎo)，推動休閑體育產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)供給者、各類參與者的休閑體育文化自覺，并落實(shí)到休閑體育發(fā)展、休閑體育參與和休閑體育消費(fèi)的實(shí)踐中。

世界休閑體育；歐美國家；健康促進(jìn)；運(yùn)動參與；體育產(chǎn)業(yè)；現(xiàn)狀；發(fā)展趨勢

G80-05

A

1001-9154(2017)04-0008-15

第一作者單位：Chair, Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion and Recreation University of North Texas，United States 北德州大學(xué)，美國