A Tentative Analysis on the Overseas Sea Routes Depicted in the Manual of Geng Lu Bu

LIU Yijie

A Tentative Analysis on the Overseas Sea Routes Depicted in the Manual of Geng Lu Bu

LIU Yijie*

In addition to the sea routes between Hainan Island and the South China Sea (SCS) Islands, the Geng Lu Bu (Manual of Sea Routes) also records the routes from Hainan Island and the SCS Islands to overseas ports, which are also called “overseas sea routes.” These overseas routes, starting from the ports of Hainan Island and of the SCS Islands to various regions of Southeast Asia, are the overseas trading routes opened by Hainan’s fishermen. They constitute a part of the ancient Maritime Silk Road of China. The existence of these overseas routes demonstrates that the fi shermen of Hainan, China, were the fi rst to explore, exploit and manage the SCS waters, and these routes serve as compelling evidence proving that the SCS Islands have, since ancient times, been an inherent part of China’s territory.

Geng Lu Bu; Overseas sea route; Group of ports; South China Sea Islands; Port of transshipment

I. Introduction

China’s seas were once covered by sailboats, and during that period of nautical exploration, the book that was used to guide navigation was commonly known as “Haidao Zhenjing” (Book of Compass Routes), or “Zhen Lu Bu” (Manual of Compass Routes). In China’s Hainan region, such a navigation guide has long beenreferred to as the Geng Lu Bu (Manual of Sea Routes). Since the mariner’s compass was invented in China’s late Song Dynasty, approximately mid-11th century, mariners had embarked on the mission to compile such navigation guides. Based on these navigation guides, Chinese mariners opened many sea routes connecting China with the outside world. Eventually, these routes formed a part of the Maritime Silk Road of China. Hainan Island mariners used their compasses to get to know the direction in which they were sailing and then compiled their accounts of sea routes into books. Their navigation guides were named after considering their sailing habits and features. These compiled guides of the mariners of Hainan Island are collectively referred to today as the “Geng Lu Bu.” As of 2016, over 30 editions of the Geng Lu Bu have been collected from the Hainan Island region. These editions of the Geng Lu Bu contain the sea routes connecting Hainan Island with the SCS Islands, as recorded and handed down by Hainan fishermen from generation to generation. Notably, some also record the sea routes from Hainan Island and the SCS Islands, particularly the Nansha Islands, to overseas ports, which are collectively called “overseas sea routes.”

This paper focuses on the study of the overseas sea routes depicted in the Geng Lu Bu. By collating such overseas routes, the paper shows that the mariners of Hainan Island have engaged in fishery production activities in the SCS and explored and managed the SCS Islands for hundreds of years. In addition, departing from the SCS Islands, the mariners opened up many sea routes to the Southeast Asian region, which helped to establish a trade network between China and the outside world.

II. A Brief Account of the Overseas Sea Routes Stated in the Geng Lu Bu

This paper only examines the sea routes from China to overseas ports and those between foreign ports as described in all of the editions of the Geng Lu Bu that the author has collected so far. For the sake of convenience, each edition will be named after its owner in a uniform way, including those which have their original names.

1. The Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu records six sea routes from Beihai (the Nansha Islands) to overseas ports, ten routes from Hainan Island to overseas ports, and 164 routes between overseas ports, totaling 180 routes. Additionally, this edition contains a chapter entitled “Routine Sea Routes for Vessels,” which is dedicatedto the do’s and don’ts of sailing from waters off the Qizhou Islands lying to the northeast of Hainan Island, to the central coast of Vietnam, and then to the waters surrounding the Con Son Island in the southeast of Vietnam. These sea routes are also included in the statistics above.

2. The Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu are from the same edition. After editing and proofreading, the edition by Su Chengfen is more systematic than the other, yet the numbers of overseas sea routes depicted in both editions are the same, i.e., both editions contain 180 overseas sea routes.

3. The Geng Lu Bu by Wu Shumao contains two sea routes from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports, two from Hainan Island to overseas ports, and 28 between the ports in the waters of Southeast Asia; 32 overseas routes in total.

4. The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Guochang records one route from the Xisha Islands to overseas ports, three from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports, two from Hainan Island to overseas ports, and 20 between overseas ports; 26 routes in total.

5. The Geng Lu Bu by Mai Xingxian includes one route from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports, one from Hainan Island to overseas ports, and 16 between overseas ports; 18 routes in total.

6. The Geng Lu Bu by Lu Jiabing records one route from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports, one from Hainan Island to overseas ports, and 11 between overseas ports; 13 routes in total.

7. The Geng Lu Bu by Li Genshen records one route from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports and 11 between overseas ports; 12 routes in total.

8. The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Shitao records fi ve routes from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports, two from Hainan Island to overseas ports, and four between overseas ports; 11 routes in total.

9. The Geng Lu Bu by Huang Jiali depicts two routes from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports and fi ve between overseas ports; seven routes in total.

10. The Geng Lu Bu by Chen Zeming keeps a record of four overseas sea routes; the Geng Lu Bu by Lin Hongjin records two; the Geng Lu Bu by Lu Honglan records two; and the Geng Lu Bu by Peng Zhengkai records one.

The 488 overseas sea routes numerated above are not exhaustive, whether starting from Hainan Island or from the SCS Islands, since some editions of the Geng Lu Bu held by private individuals or families have not yet been collected or collated for this paper. It is believed, therefore, that more overseas sea routes will“resurface” in the future.

III. The Groups of Ports on the Overseas Sea Routes

A review of the overseas sea routes listed above shows that these routes can be divided into fi ve categories: the fi rst category includes the routes from Hainan Island to overseas ports; the second includes those from the Xisha Islands to overseas ports, the third includes those from the Nansha Islands to overseas ports, the fourth includes those from overseas ports back to Hainan Island; and the last includes those between overseas ports. More generally, these overseas routes can be divided into two categories: one is the routes from Hainan Island and the SCS Islands to overseas ports, and the other is the routes between overseas ports.

In terms of geographical distribution, the ports of departure above can be divided into three groups: (a) the group of ports of Hainan Island, (b) the group of ports of the SCS Islands, and (c) the group of foreign ports of transshipment.

A. The Group of Ports of Hainan Island

The overseas routes start from more than one port of Hainan Island. These ports of departure are called collectively “the group of ports of Hainan Island”in this paper, which primarily include Dazhou Island, Lingshui, Yulin, Qinglan, Tanmen, and Puqian ports.

1. Dazhou Island

Dazhou Island is a crucial port of transshipment located on the Maritime Silk Road of China. All of the sea routes bound for Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean go by way of this island. The Nautical Charts of Zheng He, which was drawn in the early Ming Dynasty, marks the island as “Duzhushan” (獨(dú)豬山).①For the sake of limited space, only homophone names in Chinese are indicated in parentheses.The island also has other similar names, such as “Duzhushan” (獨(dú)珠山) and “Duzhoushan.” It is usually called “Dazhou” (大州) or “Dazhou” (大洲) in the Geng Lu Bu. This island serves as an essential port on the sea routes from Hainan Island to the SCS Islands and the overseas ports, and as the most important mountain for observing sailing conditions on the routes to overseas ports. For example, the Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen record the following routes:“From Dazhou to Jianbiluo, please sail in the direction of Genkun-chouwei on thecompass for 18 geng”;①The Chinese word “geng” may mean the unit of time a ship sails and the miles a ship travels at a given time. Views in academia are not consistent as to how many miles one “geng”equals. Some argue that one night is divided into 10 geng, and one geng is approximately 50 or 30 km.“From Dazhou to Wailuo, please sail in the direction of Chouwei-jia-yixianding for 20 geng”; “From Dazhou to Xinzhu, please sail in the direction of Ziwu-guiding for 28 geng”; “From Dazhou to Dafo, please sail in the direction of Ziwu for 36 geng.” The Geng Lu Bu by Wu Shumao also describes a route: “From Dazhou to Wailuo, please sail in the direction of Guiding-chouwei for 21 geng.” These sea routes all start from Dazhou Island. The places mentioned above like “Jianbiluo,” “Wailuo,” “Xinzhu” and “Dafo” are situated on the present south central coast of Vietnam. Dazhou Island is the fi rst port that a vessel calls after the start of a voyage from Hainan Island to Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia or other countries. These sea routes can also serve as guides to the voyage back to Dazhou Island.

2. Lingshui Port

Lingshui port is one of the ports situated at the southeast of Hainan Island and lying to the south of Dazhou Island. Some Hainan Island vessels choose to start their journeys from Lingshui port. For example, the Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen contain the following words: “From Lingshui to Jianbiluo, please sail in the direction of Chouwei for 16 geng”; “From Lingshui to Wailuo, please sail in the direction of Ziwu-guiding for 17 geng.” Both routes use Lingshui port as their port of departure; their ports of destination are located on the south central coast of Vietnam.

3. Yulin Port

Yulin port is the southernmost port of Hainan Island. A voyage can be shortened by starting from this port. Therefore, sea routes beginning from Yulin port to ports on the south central coast of Vietnam can be found in the Geng Lu Bu. For instance, the Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen record two routes: “From Yulin to Wailuo, please sail in the direction of Ziwu for 14 geng”; “From Yulin to Jianbiluo, please sail in the direction of Ziwu-guiding for 14 geng.”

4. Tanmen, Qinglan and Puqian Ports

The Geng Lu Bu fails to mention any overseas sea routes directly starting from these three ports; however, tracing their source, all sea routes starting from the group of ports of the SCS Islands depart from these three ports. Consequently,these three ports can be regarded as a part of the group of ports of Hainan Island.

B. The Group of Ports of the SCS Islands

Hainan fi shermen not only sailed overseas to engage in business and trading activities from the ports of Hainan Island, they also, after taking into account the peculiarities of of f shore activities, started their journeys from an island or maritime feature of the Xisha and Nansha Islands. Such islands or features were formed into a group of ports of the SCS Islands, which include the Beijiao Reef and Zhongjian Island of the Xisha Islands, as well as the Riji Reef, Nanwei Island, Nanping Reef, Nantong Reef, Huanglu Reef and Anbo Shazhou of the Nansha Islands.

1. Beijiao Reef

It is referred to as “Canto,” a transliteration of Cantonese “Guangdong”in Portuguese documents. The reef is also referenced as “Ganzhao” (干罩) or“Ganzhao” (矸罩) in the nautical charts drawn in China’s Qing Dynas-ty. And the Geng Lu Bu records it as “Gandou.” Beijiao Reef is a feature of the Xisha Islands adjacent to Hainan Island. It serves as the first port that a fishing ship usually calls after the start of a journey from Puqian, Qinglan or Tanmen ports to the SCS Islands. Therefore, Beijiao Reef (Gandou) was recorded, in various editions of the Geng Lu Bu, as the first stop on the sea routes connecting the Xisha Islands with overseas ports. This reef is also a feature of the Xisha Islands located closer to the central coast of Vietnam. Hence, sea routes starting from Beijiao Reef to Vietnamese ports are also found in the Geng Lu Bu. For example, the Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen note the following: “To travel from Gandou to Wailuo, please sail in the direction of Yinshen for 6 geng.” These words precisely describe the sea route from Beijiao Reef to Wailuo, situated on the central coast of Vietnam.

2. Zhongjian Island

It is recorded as “Banluzhi” in the Geng Lu Bu. This island is situated at the southwest of the Xisha Islands. Ships starting their voyage from this island may directly reach the waters surrounding Con Son Island in southern Vietnam. For this reason, many ships also use Zhongjian Island as their port of departure. For example, the Geng Lu Bu by Wang Guochang records the following two sea routes:“Starting from Yunqiu, please navigate in the direction of Ding on the compass to reach Liwantou, and then sail about 5 geng to Niuluzhi”; “To travel from Niuluzhi to Con Son, please sail in the direction of Wei for about 18 geng; if the east windblows, use the direction of Ding.” “Niuluzhi” therein is actually “Banluzhi”. These two routes are also the routes starting from Zhongjian Island to the central coast of Vietnam.

3. Riji Reef

Recorded as “Yixin”, “Xitou Yixin” or “Xishou Yixin” in the Geng Lu Bu, Riji Reef is located at the southwest of the Nansha Islands. Compared to any other feature of the Nansha Islands, Riji Reef is situated closer to the south central coast of Vietnam. Because of its positioning, it has become the maritime feature that has the most overseas sea routes among the Nansha Islands.

The Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen note the following: “To travel from Yixin to Annanshan, please sail in the direction of Sihai (northwest) for more than 20 geng”; “To travel from Yixin to Luohan Wantou, please sail in the direction of Xunqian (northwest) for 22 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Shitao observes the following: “To travel from Yixin to Annanshan, please sail in the direction of Sihai (northwest) for 20 geng”; “To travel from Yixin to Con Son, please sail in the direction of Maoyou for 28 geng; then you will see a lighthouse”; “In order to travel from Yixin to Fuluo Liyu, please sail in the direction of Kun-jian-wei for 32 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Guochang notes the following: “To travel from Xitou Yixin to Liu’an, please sail in the direction of Xunqian (northwest) for 22 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Lin Hongjin observes the following: “Starting from Xishou Yixin, sail in the direction of Genkun for 65 geng, then you will reach Dipan and Dongzhu.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Wu Shumao reads: “To travel from Yixin to Dipan, please sail in the direction of Kun-jian-shen-yixian for 15 geng; then navigate in the direction of Kun for 34 geng.”

The foregoing accounts of many editions of the Geng Lu Bu show that the sea routes connecting Riji Reef (also called “Yixin,” “Xitou Yixin,” “Xishou Yixin” in the Geng Lu Bu) with overseas ports mainly include: (a) the route from Riji Reef to ports on the south central coast of Vietnam, as well as to Con Son Island; (b) the route from Riji Reef to Pulau Tioman Island in the seas of f Peninsular Malaysia; and (c) the route from Riji Reef to the Natuna Islands of Indonesia.

4. Nanwei Island

It is recorded as “Niaozizhi” (鳥仔峙) or “Niaozizhi” (鳥子峙) in the Geng Lu Bu. Adjacent to Riji Reef, Nanwei Island is situated to the east of this reef. LikeRiji Reef, Nanwei Island is a port for the ships of Hainan Island to travel overseas from the Nansha Islands.

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Guochang notes the following: “To sail from Niaozizhi to Dipan, use the direction of Kun-jian-erxian-jia on the compass.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Huang Jiali records the following: “In order to travel from Niaozizhi to Dipan, please sail in the direction of Kun-jia-erxian-shen for 15 geng, then navigate in the direction of Kun for 44 geng.”①A comparison with the edition of Wu Shumao shows that the number “44” is actually a miswriting of “34”.

The Geng Lu Bu by Wu Shumao notes the following: “In order to travel from Niaozizhi to Dipan, please sail in the direction of Kun-jian-erxian-shen for 15 geng, then navigate in the direction of Kun for 34 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Lu Jiabing records the following: “To travel from Niaozizhi to Maya, sail in the direction of Dankun for 49 geng.”

The sea routes connecting Nanwei Island (also called “Niaozizhi” in Geng Lu Bu) with overseas ports primarily include: (a) the route from Nanwei Island to the Pulau Tioman Island of f Peninsular Malaysia; (b) the route from Nanwei Island to the Anambas Islands of Indonesia.

5. Nanping Reef

Located at the southeast of Nansha Islands, Nanping Reef is recorded as“Moguaxian” in the Geng Lu Bu, with Beikang Ansha, Nankang Ansha and other features in its vicinity, and with Zengmu Reef farther south.

The Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen note the following: “To travel from Moguaxian to Fuluo Chouwei, please sail in the direction of Yinshen-jia-erxian for 25 geng”; “To travel from Moguaxian to Hongwuluan, please sail in the direction of Jiageng (southwest) for 25 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Shitao observes the following: “To travel from Moguaxian to Fuluo, please sail in the direction of Yinshen-jian-erxian-genkun for 25 geng”; “To travel from Moguaxian to Gong[Hong]wuluan, please sail in the direction of Jiageng for 25 geng.”

Nanping Reef (Moguaxian) is one of the southernmost features of the Nansha Islands. In accordance with the principle of proximity, vessels setting out from Nanping Reef always head to the Natuna Islands situated at its southern side. Based on the compass needle position and sea routes, Fuluo Liyu or Fuluo Choumei refers to the Great Natuna Island of the Natuna Islands, and Hongwuluan refers to SubiIsland.

6. Nantong Reef

Situated at the southeast of the Nansha Islands and between Nanping Reef and Huanglu Reef, Nantong Reef is recorded as “Danji” or “Danjie” in the Geng Lu Bu. Similar to Nanping Reef, Nantong Reef only has overseas sea routes connecting itself with the Natuna Islands.

The Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu and the Geng Lu Bu by Su Chengfen note the following: “To travel from Danjie to Fuluo Liyu, please sail in the direction of Jiageng-jia-yixian-yinshen for 32 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Shitao observes the following: “To travel from Danjie to Fuluo Liyu, please sail in the direction of Jiageng-jian-yinshen for 32 geng.”

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Guochang says the following: “To travel from Danjie to Fuluo Liyu, please sail in the direction of Jiageng-jia-yixian-yinshen for 32 geng.”

As mentioned above, Fuluo Liyu refers to the Great Natuna Island of the Natuna Islands. The compass needle positions and sea routes connecting Nantong Reef with the Great Natuna Island, as described in the three above editions of the Geng Lu Bu, are consistent with each other.

7. Huanglu Reef

Located at the southeast of the Nansha Islands and the north of Nantong Reef, Huanglu Reef is recorded as “Wubaier” in the Geng Lu Bu. Similarly, this reef only has overseas sea routes heading to the Natuna Islands.

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Shitao observes the following: “To travel from Wubaier to Fuluo Liyu, please sail in the direction of Yinshen-jian-erxian-jiageng for 35 geng.”

Since Huanglu Reef is located farther north, the sea route starting from this reef to the Great Natuna Island (35 geng) is longer than that from Nantong Reef to the same island (32 geng).

8. Anbo Shazhou

Situated at the southeast of the Nansha Islands, it is recorded as “Guogaizhi”in the Geng Lu Bu.

The Geng Lu Bu by Wang Shitao says the following: “From Guogaizhi to Fuluo Liyu, please sail in the direction of Yinshen-jian-genkun for 35 geng.”

C. The Group of Foreign Ports of Transshipment

The majority of the sea routes depicted in the Geng Lu Bu, whether starting from the group of ports of Hainan Island or the group of ports of the SCS Islands, all head to certain ports of transshipment. The islands or ports serving as intermediate destinations constitute a group of foreign ports of transshipment. The mariners of Hainan Island opened up many sea routes through these ports of transshipment, which covered the entire waters of Southeast Asia and shaped a huge commercial network. Such islands or ports mainly involve the following three islands:

1. Con Son Island

Situated of f the coast of southern Vietnam, the island is, historically, a crucial port of transshipment for ships plying between China and foreign countries; it is also a required stop for vessels cruising to the “Western Ocean.” Notably, the sailing proverb “When going overseas, sailors are afraid of Con Son; when coming back home, they are afraid of Qizhou” can be traced back to the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279). Following the sailing traditions of Chinese maritime explorers, the mariners of Hainan Island also used Con Son Island as a crucial port of transshipment. In addition to the vessels departing from the group of ports of Hainan Island, vessels starting from the group of ports of the SCS Islands also used Con Son as a principal port of transshipment.

According to the accounts of the Geng Lu Bu, vessels plying between Hainan Island and Con Son Island departed, in most cases, from Dazhou Island, Lingshui and Yulin ports; and vessels starting from the SCS Islands primarily used the ports of Riji Reef and Nanwei Island located at the west of the Nansha Islands.

The sea routes between Con Son Island and the ports scattered on the south central coast of Vietnam were vital routes for vessels traveling between Hainan Island and foreign lands. Vessels departing from the group of ports of Hainan Island, in some cases, fi rst sailed to Cham Island (called “Jianbiluo” in the Geng Lu Bu), Ke Ga Cape (called “Luoantou”, “Liu’an” and “Luowantou” in the Geng Lu Bu), Cu Lao Re Island (called “Wailuo” in the Geng Lu Bu) or other islands situated in central Vietnam, and then used Con Son Island as a transshipment base to travel to all parts of Southeast Asia. Following this route, ships travelling westward could enter the Bay of Bangkok; sailing along and through the coast of Cambodia and then towards northwest, ships could directly reach the Bangkok Port located in southern Thailand. The overseas sea route from Con Son Island toPulau Tioman Island, another port of transshipment, is particularly important since it integrated the trade and commercial networks in the waters of the Southeast Asia together. Con Son Island serves as the most important transshipment base along the overseas sea routes. The fact that sea routes in connection with Con Son Island are described in the Geng Lu Bu by Su Deliu, Su Chengfen and others highlights the essential role the island plays in overseas sea routes.

2. Pulau Tioman Island

It is generally recorded as “Dipan” in the Geng Lu Bu, “Dimanshan” in Shunfeng Xiangsong (Voyage with a Tail Wind), “Diman” in Dongxiyang Kao (A Research on Eastern and Western Oceans), and “Dipanshan” in Zhinan Zhengfa (The True Art of Pointing South). It also has other names such as “Chapan”,“Dipanzi”, “Zhupan” and “Dipenshan”. These names all refer to today’s Pulau Tioman Island, which is located in the southwest of the Gulf of Thailand and of f the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Pulau Tioman Island is also translated into“Chaoman Dao” (潮滿島) and “Diaoman Dao” (刁曼島) in Chinese. It serves as the main port of transshipment for Chinese vessels to sail to the Strait of Malacca and the ports lying on the eastern side of Peninsular Malaysia. As per the accounts of the Geng Lu Bu, some of the overseas sea routes bound for Pulau Tioman Island start from the group of ports of Hainan Island by way of Con Son Island, and some others directly depart from the group of ports of the SCS Islands, including Riji Reef and Nanwei Island. For example, the Geng Lu Bu by Wang Guochang records a route for ships to sail southwestward from Nanwei Island to Pulau Tioman Island; it notes the following: “To travel from Niaozizhi to Dipan, use the direction of Kun-jian-erxian-jia on the compass.”

3. The Natuna Islands

This group of islands is located between Peninsular Malaysia and Kalimantan Island and to the south of China’s Nansha Islands. It now belongs to Indonesia. The Natuna Islands is a required stop when ships sail to the ports of eastern Indonesia along the Ancient Maritime Silk Road of China. “Wuqi Island” noted in the Zhen Lu Bu refers to the Natuna Islands or specifically the Great Natuna Island. All routes starting from the SCS Islands to the eastern ports of Indonesia and the Port of Singapore used the Natuna Islands as a transshipment base. The routes heading to the Natuna Islands mainly started from Nanping Reef, Huanglu Reef and Anbo Shazhou, located at the eastern Nansha Islands. In the Geng Lu Bu, the Great Natuna Island is called “Fuluo Liyu” or “Fuluo Chouwei”, and Subi Island is called“Hongwuluan” (洪武鑾) or “Hongwuluan” (宏武鑾).

Con Son Island, Pulau Tioman Island and the Natuna Islands are merely the more important ports of transshipment described in the Geng Lu Bu. Other ports of transshipment also include Cham Island, Cu Lao Re Island, and Jemaja Andriabu Island, which are situated at the middle of the overseas sea routes. These ports form a group of foreign ports of transshipment, which provided the base for the mariners of Hainan Island to engage in commercial and trade activities in the waters of Southeast Asia.

IV. The Trading Network Connected by Overseas Sea Routes

An analysis of the sea routes recorded in the Geng Lu Bu shows that the operations carried out on the SCS Islands by fi shermen of Hainan Island are not merely fi shery production activities, but also economic behaviors involving trade and business. These fi shermen carried their fi shery catches from the SCS Islands to Southeast Asia and traded with the locals. After that, they carried back the goods they got from the locals to Hainan Island. By doing this, these fi shermen weaved a large and complex commercial network in this vast sea area. This network can be linked with sea routes from the mainland of China to foreign countries; moreover, it can be extended farther to open up new routes, becoming a supplement to the Maritime Silk Road.

1. The SCS Routes

Ships departing from the group of ports of Hainan Island would, in most cases, sail fi rst to the Xisha Islands to engage in fi shery production activities; after doing some repair and maintenance work and getting enough supplies, the ships would then sail southward to the Nansha Islands for fi shing. Due to the inf l uence of monsoon and ocean currents, ships, after fishing around the Nansha Islands, would not return to Hainan Island along the original routes. Instead, following the wind, these ships would sail southward or westward to carry out commercial activities in the ports of Southeast Asia, and then return to Hainan Island by way of the ports located on the south central coast of Vietnam when the monsoon came. Most editions of the Geng Lu Bu that have been collected are guides for navigation mainly in the waters adjacent to the SCS Islands. Therefore, the sea routes recorded therein are principally guides for sailing between the SCS Islands. Due to the number of SCS Islands involved in these routes, such sea routes are also great in number. The sea routes between the SCS Islands are the beginning or the fi rstsegments of the overseas sea routes.

2. Overseas Sea Routes

The routes from Hainan Island to the foreign ports consist of two parts: one begins from the group of ports of Hainan Island to overseas ports, i.e., the sea routes between Hainan Island and overseas ports, and the other starts from the group of ports of the SCS Islands to overseas. The overseas sea routes starting from the SCS Islands extend westward and southward, covering the entire sea area of Southeast Asia. The overseas sea routes beginning from the group of ports of the SCS Islands are one-way journeys. In other words, ships would not return to the departing ports of the SCS Islands; instead, they would, after the end of some commercial and trade activities, return to Hainan Island by way of the ports on the south central coast of Vietnam.

Specifically, some of the overseas sea routes described in the Geng Lu Bu overlap with the “Western Ocean Route” of the traditional Maritime Silk Road of China, or the former can be said to constitute a part of the latter. These routes start from the Wanshan Islands of f the Pearl River mouth of Guangdong Province; they would extend southward by way of the Qizhou Islands situated to the northeast of Hainan Island, and then enter the Western Ocean by way of Dazhou Island. These routes are identical with the “Western Ocean Route” of the traditional Maritime Silk Road. Ships departing from Hainan Island to overseas ports would fi rst reach the ports of today’s central and southern Vietnam, such as the Vietnamese coastal ports of Cham Island, Cu Lao Re Island, Ke Ga Cape and Con Son Island. These ports served as the primary transshipment base for ships sailing along the Maritime Silk Road. In particular, Con Son Island stands as a hub on the Maritime Silk Road. All the vessels sailing toward or back from the Western Ocean would pass the island and use it as a navigation mark.

The sea routes starting from the group of ports of Hainan Island are only a part of the network of overseas sea routes. This marine trade network is mainly connected by ships starting from the group of ports of the SCS Islands. Ships starting from the group of ports of the SCS Islands primarily departed from Riji Reef and Nanwei Island of the Nansha Islands and then sailed toward Con Son Island, situated at southern Vietnam, and Pulau Tioman Island, of f the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. After transferring at Con Son Island, some ships could bypass southern Vietnam, sailing westward to the Gulf of Thailand, then moving along the coast of Cambodia, and fi nally sailing northward to Thailand’s southern ports. Some other ships traveled southwestward to Pulau Tioman Island by sailing throughthe Gulf of Thailand; using Pulau Tioman Island as a transshipment base, the ships could then reach many ports of east Peninsular Malaysia, including Pahang and Terengganu. Following a more frequently used route, ships could travel southward from Pulau Tioman Island until reaching Riau Archipelago, located at the east entrance to the Strait of Malacca, and finally arrive at Singapore. In accordance with the accounts of the Geng Lu Bu, Singapore is the southwesternmost port that the vessels of Hainan Island may reach; by way of Singapore, ships may also sail towards the Cirebon of Indonesia.

Ships departing from the southeast of the Nansha Islands, such as Anbo Shazhou, Huanglu Reef, Nantong Reef and Nanping Reef, would sail southward to the Natuna Islands and the Anambas Islands; after passing these two group of islands, ships could follow one sea route to sail southward to the Java Island of Indonesia, or they could also travel westward in accordance with another sea route to Singapore.

An examination on the distribution of the sea routes above reveals that the sea routes guiding the navigation of ships of Hainan Island departing from the group of ports of Hainan Island and that of the SCS Islands fully cover the sea areas of Southeast Asia, ranging from the waters of f the central and southern coasts of Vietnam, the coast of the Gulf of Thailand, and the eastern entrance to the Strait of Malacca, to the areas surrounding the Java Island of Indonesia. The ships of Hainan Island convey the catches obtained from the SCS waters to ports of Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, which would be traded on the local markets. After such trading activities, ships would then return to Hainan Island by way of Pulau Tioman Island, Con Son Island, or/and other ports.

V. Conclusions

The overseas sea routes recorded in only a few editions of the Geng Lu Bu are enough to tell that the fi shermen of Hainan Island, after fi shing in the SCS waters for hundreds of years, built a network of overseas sea routes centered on the group of ports of Hainan Island and that of SCS Islands. This network covers the entire waters of Southeast Asia. Due to these fi shermen’s work and ef f ort in this sea area year after year, a group of ports of overseas sea routes was also shaped centering on Con Son Island and Pulau Tioman Island. Such unbroken overseas routes cannot be established in a short time. Rather, it requires the sailing experiences and techniques accumulated by the fi shermen of Hainan Island over a long periodof time. Because of such experiences and techniques, those routes were able to be recorded in the Geng Lu Bu and became the navigation guides for mariners.

A comparison between the overseas sea routes described in the Geng Lu Bu and those in the Zhen Lu Bu would also show that the ways that the two manuals describe routes are virtually identical, the sea routes recorded in them basically overlap with each other, and the waters and ports that the ships could reach following these routes are identical, too. These findings demonstrate that the overseas sea routes stated in the Geng Lu Bu constitute a part of the Maritime Silk Road of China and prove that these routes have a longstanding record as a part of China’s trade history.

Translator: XIE Hongyue

Editor (English): Ashley Nicole Hewitt

* LIU Yijie, Deputy Secretary General of the Institute of Chinese Overseas Transportation History, a council member of China Zhenghe Society, and Deputy Editor-in-Chief of China Ocean Press. His research interests include Chinese overseas transportation history, China’s maritime history and marine culture. E-mail: 13601297703@126.com.

? THE AUTHOR AND CHINA OCEANS LAW REVIEW