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    腫瘤微環(huán)境下DC功能的抑制及作用機(jī)制①

    2016-06-29 05:22:14施宣忍
    中國免疫學(xué)雜志 2016年6期
    關(guān)鍵詞:單核細(xì)胞免疫抑制抗原

    施宣忍 王 莉 崔 晶

    (山東省千佛山醫(yī)院,濟(jì)南250014)

    腫瘤微環(huán)境下DC功能的抑制及作用機(jī)制①

    施宣忍王莉崔晶

    (山東省千佛山醫(yī)院,濟(jì)南250014)

    樹突狀細(xì)胞(Dendritic cell,DC)是目前發(fā)現(xiàn)的體內(nèi)功能最強(qiáng)的專職抗原提呈細(xì)胞(Antigen presenting cell,APC)。DC前體細(xì)胞經(jīng)血液循環(huán)進(jìn)入外周組織分化為未成熟DC(Immature dendritic cell,iDC),外周組織中的iDC是處于非活化狀態(tài)的,具有很強(qiáng)的攝取抗原的能力。DC對外源性抗原及腫瘤抗原產(chǎn)生胞飲作用,在細(xì)胞內(nèi)把抗原加工成短肽并合成主要組織相容性復(fù)合體(Major histocompatibility complex,MHC)被提呈到細(xì)胞表面。此外,DC在成熟過程中,表達(dá)協(xié)同刺激分子、分泌炎性因子以及獲得向局部淋巴組織遷移的能力。成熟DC(Mature dendritic cell,mDC)攝取和加工抗原的能力減弱,而抗原提呈能力增強(qiáng)。DC在表型和功能上都呈現(xiàn)高度異質(zhì)性,這導(dǎo)致了它在調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)體免疫反應(yīng)中的雙重作用,既能啟動和調(diào)節(jié)固有免疫應(yīng)答和獲得性免疫應(yīng)答,又能調(diào)節(jié)T細(xì)胞反應(yīng),維持和誘導(dǎo)機(jī)體免疫耐受。

    細(xì)胞癌變過程中表達(dá)的新抗原或過度表達(dá)的抗原物質(zhì)作為“非己”成分,機(jī)體可通過固有免疫和獲得性免疫進(jìn)行識別和殺傷,在形成腫瘤前將其清除。有效的抗腫瘤細(xì)胞免疫應(yīng)答包括:(1)DC識別腫瘤抗原分子;(2)DC活化并募集非特異細(xì)胞如巨噬細(xì)胞、自然殺傷細(xì)胞等;(3)DC攝取腫瘤抗原提呈給T 細(xì)胞;(4)特異T細(xì)胞增殖活化;(5)抗原特異性T細(xì)胞遷移至腫瘤部位并殺死腫瘤細(xì)胞。除了激發(fā)細(xì)胞免疫反應(yīng),DC還可以通過激發(fā)體液免疫、與腫瘤細(xì)胞直接接觸而抑制其生長、自分泌和誘導(dǎo)旁分泌多種細(xì)胞因子等多種機(jī)制起到抗腫瘤免疫應(yīng)答。鑒于DC有強(qiáng)大的抗腫瘤作用,近年來利用DC疫苗來治療惡性腫瘤成為臨床和科研的研究熱點(diǎn)。然而,無論是機(jī)體自身抗腫瘤作用還是應(yīng)用DC疫苗療法的效果都不盡如人意,這可能與腫瘤的微環(huán)境誘導(dǎo)了免疫耐受有關(guān)。

    腫瘤微環(huán)境在腫瘤的發(fā)生、發(fā)展過程中扮演了重要角色。由腫瘤細(xì)胞、免疫細(xì)胞及其他間質(zhì)細(xì)胞相互作用營造的組織缺氧、間質(zhì)成分改變、多種免疫抑制性因子的微環(huán)境促進(jìn)了腫瘤的免疫逃逸。腫瘤細(xì)胞及其間質(zhì)細(xì)胞可以分泌血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞生長因子(Vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)、轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子(Transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)、白介素-10(Interleukin-10,IL-10)、前列腺素E2(Prostaglandin E2,PGE2)等多種免疫抑制因子,下調(diào)免疫效應(yīng)細(xì)胞的活性,腫瘤細(xì)胞的某些代謝產(chǎn)物也可影響DC的免疫活性,從而使機(jī)體免疫系統(tǒng)功能受到抑制。此外,在腫瘤微環(huán)境中還存在著免疫抑制細(xì)胞如髓系抑制性細(xì)胞(Myeloid-derived suppressor cell,MDSC)和調(diào)節(jié)性T細(xì)胞(regulatory T cell,Treg)等。腫瘤微環(huán)境能夠影響DC的募集、分化、成熟和生存,抑制DC提呈抗原和激活T細(xì)胞,導(dǎo)致機(jī)體對腫瘤抗原的無應(yīng)答而發(fā)生免疫耐受。本綜述將主要闡述在腫瘤微環(huán)境中DC分化、成熟和功能等方面的抑制及其機(jī)制(圖1)。

    圖1 樹突狀細(xì)胞在腫瘤微環(huán)境中的免疫耐受Fig.1 Immune tolerance of dendritic cell in tumor microenvironment

    1荷瘤機(jī)體中的DC分布

    有研究證明在頭頸鱗狀細(xì)胞癌患者的外周血中DC含量和正常人相比是有區(qū)別的,腫瘤患者外周血中骨髓來源DC前體細(xì)胞明顯低于正常人[1],同樣的現(xiàn)象在乳腺癌、結(jié)直腸癌、胃癌、肺癌、宮頸癌、子宮內(nèi)膜癌、膀胱癌和腎細(xì)胞癌等患者中也被觀察到[2]。在一系列腫瘤預(yù)后相關(guān)研究中,發(fā)現(xiàn)外周血中DC數(shù)量的異常和腫瘤患者不良預(yù)后有顯著的相關(guān)性。腫瘤組織內(nèi)浸潤的DC較多為未成熟表型,而癌周組織處DC則多為成熟DC[3]。腫瘤來源的細(xì)胞因子和DC趨化因子可以招募未成熟DC遷移至腫瘤組織,隨后限制其成熟及功能[4]。

    2DC分化與腫瘤微環(huán)境

    DC是來源于CD34+造血干細(xì)胞的抗原提呈細(xì)胞群,研究表明腫瘤微環(huán)境中的腫瘤細(xì)胞及相關(guān)因素可以干擾DC前體細(xì)胞的分化,從而導(dǎo)致荷瘤機(jī)體中APC活性降低甚至喪失。人腎細(xì)胞癌和胰腺癌癌細(xì)胞分泌的IL-6和粒細(xì)胞集落刺激因子(Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor,G-CSF)被證實(shí)可阻礙CD34+細(xì)胞向DC分化,用胰腺癌細(xì)胞條件培養(yǎng)基與健康捐獻(xiàn)者的單核細(xì)胞共培養(yǎng)時,單核細(xì)胞向DC分化的能力明顯減弱,若用去除了IL-6和G-CSF的條件培養(yǎng)基則可以逆轉(zhuǎn)其抑制DC分化的特性[5]。IL-6還可上調(diào)單核細(xì)胞表達(dá)M-CSF受體促進(jìn)其利用自身分泌的M-CSF,由于IL-6和M-CSF的相互作用,單核細(xì)胞趨向于分化為巨噬細(xì)胞而非DC[6,7]。IL-6是具有致癌潛能的轉(zhuǎn)錄因子STAT3的重要調(diào)節(jié)物,通過JAK途徑刺激STAT3活化。在DC前體細(xì)胞中,IL-6通過激活STAT3信號傳導(dǎo)通路而抑制其分化為DC[8]。在腫瘤細(xì)胞中STAT3過度活化增強(qiáng)了腫瘤細(xì)胞增殖和遷移能力,抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞凋亡,此外還可上調(diào)自身免疫抑制性分子的表達(dá),如IL-6,并進(jìn)一步促進(jìn)免疫細(xì)胞和腫瘤細(xì)胞STAT3的活化形成正反饋環(huán)路[9]。證據(jù)表明利用小干擾RNA抑制VEGF的乳腺癌細(xì)胞與未處理的對照組相比,由單核細(xì)胞分化而來的DC表達(dá)協(xié)同刺激分子明顯高于對照組[10]。促進(jìn)腫瘤血管生長的VEGF直接參與了腫瘤局部的免疫抑制,VEGF可以通過抑制細(xì)胞內(nèi)NF-κB的活性而阻礙CD34+細(xì)胞向DC分化[11]。同樣的抑制效應(yīng)在腫瘤負(fù)載的老鼠體內(nèi)實(shí)驗(yàn)也被證實(shí)[12]。此外,人類黑色素瘤分泌的神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂亦可以抑制前體細(xì)胞分化為DC,還可誘導(dǎo)單核細(xì)胞來源的DC凋亡[13,14]。近年來研究顯示腫瘤細(xì)胞及腫瘤基質(zhì)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生的PGE2抑制了骨髓前體細(xì)胞和單核細(xì)胞向DC分化[15]。

    此外,腫瘤相關(guān)因素還可以影響DC其他亞群的發(fā)展。在腫瘤組織和腫瘤引流淋巴結(jié)中存在著多種髓系抑制細(xì)胞(MDSC)[16-19],這些具有免疫抑制特性的細(xì)胞通過釋放吲哚胺2,3-加雙氧酶(IDO)和精氨酸酶Ⅰ誘導(dǎo)T細(xì)胞耐受[20,21]。腫瘤細(xì)胞釋放的IL-10和TGFβ可刺激被募集至瘤體中的單核細(xì)胞分化為巨噬細(xì)胞,稱為腫瘤相關(guān)巨噬細(xì)胞(Tumor- associated macrophage,TAM)。TAM在腫瘤組織中可以高效地吞噬凋亡的腫瘤細(xì)胞[22],從而抑制DC攝取腫瘤抗原。TAM有很強(qiáng)的免疫抑制功能,不僅能通過產(chǎn)生TGFβ、精氨酸酶Ⅰ等細(xì)胞因子抑制免疫效應(yīng),還可以釋放趨化因子來募集調(diào)節(jié)性T細(xì)胞和幼稚T細(xì)胞[23,24]。在腫瘤細(xì)胞和TAM產(chǎn)生的高水平TGFβ環(huán)境中,DC遷移至腫瘤引流淋巴結(jié)的能力減弱,是由于TGFβ抑制了DC表達(dá)細(xì)胞趨化因子CCR7[25,26]。

    低氧是腫瘤微環(huán)境的特征之一,缺氧誘導(dǎo)因子(Hypoxia-inducible factors,HIF)是細(xì)胞在低氧環(huán)境中的主要調(diào)節(jié)因子。腫瘤微環(huán)境的低氧引起細(xì)胞HIF的上調(diào),從而促進(jìn)了MDSC和TAM的免疫抑制力,并且加快了MDSC向TAM的分化[27]。盡管低氧環(huán)境對DC的影響并不是特別清楚,但是有研究表明低氧可誘導(dǎo)DC表達(dá)HIF啟動免疫應(yīng)答,并可上調(diào)其表達(dá)協(xié)同刺激分子和促炎性細(xì)胞因子[28-31]。對于在腫瘤微環(huán)境中低氧提高了成熟DC的功能卻抑制了整體的抗腫瘤免疫的解釋可能是腫瘤組織中DC的數(shù)量較少,不足以對抗腫瘤環(huán)境中的其他抑制因素。腫瘤微環(huán)境對DC前體細(xì)胞分化的影響不僅局限于產(chǎn)生低效應(yīng)DC而且還可促進(jìn)其分化為免疫抑制細(xì)胞,這對荷瘤宿主產(chǎn)生有效抗腫瘤免疫和腫瘤免疫逃逸都有重大作用。

    3DC成熟與腫瘤微環(huán)境

    大量研究表明,在腫瘤組織中浸潤DC成熟與否及功能完整與否對于抗腫瘤T細(xì)胞免疫應(yīng)答的強(qiáng)弱及腫瘤患者預(yù)后均有很重要的意義。DC分化的終末階段是攝取抗原后轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榫哂屑せ羁乖禺愋訲細(xì)胞功能的細(xì)胞,這稱為DC的成熟,可由病原體、炎癥或是組織損傷等因素刺激引起。在這個過程中,DC捕獲抗原的能力逐漸下降,而不斷增強(qiáng)抗原提呈能力,高水平表達(dá)黏附分子和協(xié)同刺激分子,這些對于啟動有效的免疫應(yīng)答均有至關(guān)重要的作用。從進(jìn)展期黑色素瘤患者和緩解期黑色素瘤患者體內(nèi)分別提取DC,發(fā)現(xiàn)前者DC表達(dá)的協(xié)同刺激分子明顯低于后者,并且進(jìn)展期腫瘤患者來源的DC誘導(dǎo)T細(xì)胞無應(yīng)答而緩解期患者來源的DC卻能夠刺激T細(xì)胞的正常增殖。這表明DC成熟活化的質(zhì)量與所處的環(huán)境有很大關(guān)系,所以探討腫瘤來源的因素及腫瘤微環(huán)境是如何調(diào)節(jié)DC成熟和功能是很有必要的。

    DC成熟可由MHC分子和協(xié)同刺激分子包括CD80、CD86等表達(dá)能力及遷移至淋巴結(jié)并提呈抗原給T細(xì)胞的能力來評價[32]。IL-10是DC成熟和功能的重要調(diào)節(jié)因素,當(dāng)腫瘤患者血清中IL-10水平提高時,循環(huán)血中DC前體細(xì)胞也相應(yīng)增加[33]。研究證明,IL-10主要在阻斷DC成熟和抑制成熟DC激活T細(xì)胞能力起作用,卻不影響成熟DC向局部淋巴結(jié)遷移[34]。IL-10通過激活未成熟DC中的STAT3信號通路,下調(diào)DC協(xié)同刺激分子的表達(dá)和促炎因子如IL-12和TNFα的分泌,使其不能提供T細(xì)胞活化的第二信號[35]。由細(xì)胞因子信號抑制蛋白和STAT活化抑制劑阻斷STAT3的活化則可促進(jìn)DC成熟[36]。有體外實(shí)驗(yàn)顯示IL-6抑制LPS誘導(dǎo)的DC成熟也是通過活化DC內(nèi)STAT3信號傳導(dǎo)通路引起的[37]。

    腫瘤微環(huán)境中的腫瘤細(xì)胞、基質(zhì)細(xì)胞及各種浸潤的免疫細(xì)胞都可以高表達(dá)COX2-PGE2,由于DC的成熟程度和分布位置不同,PGE2對其作用也不同。在外周組織中,PGE2可使DC高表達(dá)CCR7而促進(jìn)DC向次級淋巴器官遷移[38]。當(dāng)DC遷移至次級淋巴器官后,PGE2使DC自身分泌IL-10增多,抑制DC成熟,MHC分子表達(dá)明顯降低,激活T細(xì)胞的能力下降[39]。此外,也有證據(jù)顯示PGE2與TNF-α共同作用可提高DC刺激T細(xì)胞活化的能力,這在應(yīng)用于DC疫苗的制備有重要作用[40]。除了上述腫瘤微環(huán)境相關(guān)的細(xì)胞因子,腫瘤細(xì)胞的多胺代謝產(chǎn)物如腐胺、精胺、亞精胺對DC成熟也有影響,在乳腺癌患者血清中的精胺水平與DC產(chǎn)生IL-12是呈負(fù)相關(guān)關(guān)系的[41]。

    4DC凋亡與腫瘤微環(huán)境

    誘導(dǎo)DC程序性死亡也是腫瘤微環(huán)境對DC免疫抑制的機(jī)制之一。腫瘤細(xì)胞可分泌促凋亡因子如IL-10、一氧化氮(NO)、神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂和神經(jīng)酰胺等,與DC作用后引發(fā)DC凋亡[42-44]。IL-10可以加快DC自發(fā)性凋亡速度并對抗CD40配體和TNFα的保護(hù)作用[45]?;钚宰杂苫鵑O對DNA有損傷作用,可由腫瘤細(xì)胞和巨噬細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生,對腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展有著雙重作用,低濃度時NO是促進(jìn)血管生成的,而在高濃度時,NO反過來抑制腫瘤血管生成[46]。外源性NO可通過多種機(jī)制促進(jìn)DC凋亡,包括破壞細(xì)胞線粒體膜結(jié)構(gòu)、下調(diào)抗凋亡分子的表達(dá)及提高細(xì)胞凋亡蛋白酶的活性[47]。此外,腫瘤細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)的主要成分透明質(zhì)酸也可通過誘導(dǎo)NO合成和釋放來誘導(dǎo)DC凋亡。

    神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂是各種細(xì)胞膜都表達(dá)的鞘糖脂成分,在腫瘤組織中其表達(dá)量明顯增加且結(jié)構(gòu)異常[48,49]。神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂在DC分化成熟的各個階段都有損害作用,它可以阻礙單核細(xì)胞向DC分化、干擾DC成熟、抑制DC產(chǎn)生IL-12,甚至是誘導(dǎo)DC凋亡[50,51]。在暴露于特定的神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂類分子環(huán)境中,DC可由于活性氧的增多而凋亡[52]。腫瘤微環(huán)境中的神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂類分子可流向外周血而使循環(huán)中的濃度增加,因此可能是影響循環(huán)中DC生存能力的因素之一。

    5總結(jié)與展望

    機(jī)體本身的腫瘤免疫監(jiān)視功能對識別和消除腫瘤的關(guān)鍵作用是無可否認(rèn)的,同樣地,腫瘤微環(huán)境對機(jī)體發(fā)揮免疫功能的抑制作用也是無法忽視的。在腫瘤抗原的攝取、提呈和激活特異性T細(xì)胞等多個環(huán)節(jié)都有不可替代作用的DC,成為了腫瘤免疫逃逸的作用對象。腫瘤微環(huán)境及其相關(guān)因素對DC的分化、成熟、功能都有不同程度的影響,然而我們對這些錯綜復(fù)雜的機(jī)制了解還不夠。目前對腫瘤逃逸機(jī)制的研究都局限于某一方面,對于將來的研究方向應(yīng)是探討這些機(jī)制的內(nèi)在聯(lián)系,從而進(jìn)行有效地免疫治療,提高腫瘤患者的治愈率。

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    [收稿2015-06-08修回2015-07-13]

    (編輯張曉舟)

    doi:10.3969/j.issn.1000-484X.2016.06.029

    作者簡介:施宣忍(1990年-),女,在讀碩士,主要從事腫瘤免疫研究。 通訊作者及指導(dǎo)教師:崔晶(1975年-),女,副主任醫(yī)師,碩士生導(dǎo)師,主要從事腫瘤分子病理與腫瘤免疫研究,E-mail:Cuijing@sdhospital.com.cn。

    中圖分類號R392

    文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)志碼A

    文章編號1000-484X(2016)06-0896-05

    ①本文為國家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(81301789)和山東省自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(ZR2011HQ013)。

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