中華思想文化術(shù)語(連載二)

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中華思想文化術(shù)語(連載二)

1.宇宙 /yǔzhòu/

Universe/Cosmos

本義指屋檐和棟梁，引申指空間和時(shí)間，及由無限空間和無限時(shí)間所構(gòu)成的世界整體。“宇”指天地四方，也即包括上、下、東、西、南、北的整個(gè)空間；“宙”指往古來今，也即包括過去和未來的整個(gè)時(shí)間。“宇宙”在空間上可以無限擴(kuò)展，在時(shí)間上可以無限延續(xù)。中國(guó)哲學(xué)以“宇宙論”指稱探討世界本體及世界發(fā)生發(fā)展進(jìn)程的學(xué)問。

The original meaning of the term refers to the eave and beam of a house while its extended meaning is time and space，as well as the whole world composed of limitless time and space. The first characteryu(宇) means heaven and earth as well as all the directions of north，south，east and west，upward and downward；the second characterzhou(宙) means all of time，the past，present and future. Together，the term implies infinite space and endless time. In Chinese philosophy，“theories of the universe” are concerned with the existence of the world in an ontological senseand with its process of evolution.

引例 Citations：

往古來今謂之宙，四方上下謂之宇。(《淮南子·齊俗訓(xùn)》)

(由過去到未來的時(shí)間稱為“宙”，東南西北上下的空間稱為“宇”。)

The past，present and future are calledzhou；north，south，east，west，upward and downward are calledyu.(Huainanzi)

宇之表無極，宙之端無窮。(張衡《靈憲》)

(“宇”的外延是沒有極限的，“宙”的終始是沒有窮盡的。)

Yusignifies space without limits;zhourepresents time without end. (Zhang Heng：LawoftheUniverse)

2.自然 /zìrán/

Naturalness

事物的本來狀態(tài)，旨在與“人為”的意義相區(qū)別。哲學(xué)意義上的“自然”的概念，與常識(shí)性的“自然界”的概念不同。在日常語義中，“自然界”指人與社會(huì)之外的物質(zhì)世界，這一領(lǐng)域是不受人為干擾的。但從哲學(xué)層面來看，人與社會(huì)也有其“自然”狀態(tài)。在政治哲學(xué)領(lǐng)域，“自然”特指百姓在不受行政教化干預(yù)的情況下自己而然的狀態(tài)。道家主張，君主治理國(guó)家應(yīng)遵循、順應(yīng)百姓的“自然”狀態(tài)。

The term refers to the primordial state of things，unaffected by the various meanings imposed on it by man. The concept of naturalness in philosophy is different from that of nature in the ordinary sense. In daily language，the term refers to the physical world which is independent of human interference as opposed to human society. In philosophy there is also a natural state of man and society. In political philosophy，“naturalness” specifically applies to the natural state enjoyed by ordinary people free from the intervention of government supervision and moral edification. Daoism holds that in governance a monarch should conform to the natural state of the people.

引例 Citations：

道法自然。(《老子·二十五章》)

(道以自然為法則。)

Daotakes naturalness as its law. (Laozi)

天地任自然，無為無造，萬物自相治理。(王弼《老子注》)

(天地聽任萬物之自然，不施為造作，而讓萬物自己相互治理。)

Heaven and earth allow everything to follow their natural course without imposing any interference so that all things interact and govern themselves. (Wang Bi：AnnotationsonLaozi)

3.悲慨 /bēikǎi/

Melancholy and Resentment

悲傷憤慨?？锌?，憤慨，是晚唐詩(shī)人司空?qǐng)D所概括的詩(shī)歌的二十四種風(fēng)格之一。主要指詩(shī)作中所表現(xiàn)出的悲劇性情結(jié)。當(dāng)詩(shī)人命途多舛或身處困境，或面對(duì)壯闊景觀或大的事件而自覺力量渺小，會(huì)產(chǎn)生憂愁、悲哀、感傷、激憤的情緒，投射到詩(shī)歌創(chuàng)作中則形成“悲慨”風(fēng)格。這一術(shù)語看似近于西方文學(xué)理論的“悲劇”范疇，實(shí)質(zhì)上受道家思想影響較大，而最后往往趨于無奈或趨于曠達(dá)。

Melancholy and resentment which here refers to a sense of helplessness found in poemsis one of the 24 poetic styles summarized by Sikong Tua poet in the late Tang Dynasty. Faced with frustrations and tough challenges in life or overwhelmed by the immensity of nature or major events，poets were often seized by dejection，grief，sadness and anger which gave rise to a“melancholy and resentment” style in poetry writing. While the style bears similarity with the genre of tragedy in Western literary tradition，it is more influenced by Daoism，often featuring a sense of resignation or stoic optimism.

引例 Citations：

大風(fēng)卷水，林木為摧。適苦欲死，招憩不來。百歲如流，富貴冷灰。大道日喪，若為雄才。壯士拂劍，浩然彌哀。蕭蕭落葉，漏雨蒼苔。(司空?qǐng)D《二十四詩(shī)品·悲慨》)

(大風(fēng)卷起狂瀾，樹木遭受摧折。心中悲苦痛不欲生，想休憩片刻亦不可得。百年歲月像流水永逝，富貴和繁華都化作冷寂塵埃。世道日益淪喪，誰是當(dāng)世雄才？壯士拔劍仰天嘆，凝望蒼穹愈悲哀。好比落葉蕭蕭下，且聽漏雨滴蒼苔。)

Winds are howling，waves raging，and tree branches breaking. Gripped by an agonizing pain at my heart，I yearn for a spell of peace but only in vain. As time slips by，year after year，decade after decade，all the riches，fame and splendor are but nothing. Facing moral degeneration，who will rise and salvage the world? With sword in hand，I heave a deep sigh and stare intensely at the sky. Overwhelmed with sorrow，all I can do is to watch leaves falling and hear rain beating against the moss. (Sikong Tu：Twenty-fourStylesofPoetry)

感嘆之余，作詩(shī)相屬，托物悲慨，阨窮而不怨，泰而不驕。(蘇軾《和王晉卿[并敘]》)

(在感嘆之余，蒙其作詩(shī)勸慰囑咐，借景物抒發(fā)內(nèi)心悲傷憤慨的情緒，雖遇困厄而不怨恨，命運(yùn)通達(dá)也不驕狂。)

After a deep sigh，he wrote a poem to admonish and comfort me，in which he expressed his indignation and resentment by making an analogy with imagery. He advised me not to grudge about tough times or be complacent when everything goes well in life. (Su Shi：APoeminReplytoWangJinqingwithaPreface)

4.本末 /běnmò/

BenandMo(The Fundamental and the Incidental)

本義指草木的根和梢，引申而為中國(guó)哲學(xué)的重要概念。其含義可以概括為三個(gè)方面：其一，指具有不同價(jià)值和重要性的事物，根本的、主要的事物為“本”，非根本的、次要的事物為“末”；其二，世界的本體或本原為“本”，具體的事物或現(xiàn)象為“末”；其三，在道家的政治哲學(xué)中，無為之治下的自然狀態(tài)為“本”，各種具體的道德、綱常為“末”。在“本末”對(duì)待的關(guān)系中，“本”具有根本性、主導(dǎo)性的作用和意義，“末”由“本”而生，依賴“本”而存在，但“本”的作用的發(fā)揮仍需以“末”為載體。二者既相互區(qū)別，又相互依賴。

The two characters literally mean the different parts of a plant，namely，its root and its foliage. The extended meaning is an important concept in Chinese philosophical discourse. The term can be understood in three different ways. (1)Ben(本) refers to what is fundamental or essential whilemo(末) means what is minor or incidental，two qualities that differ in value and importance. (2)Benrefers to the existence of the world in an ontological sense whilemorepresents any specific thing or phenomenon. (3) In Daoist political philosophybenis a state in which rule is exercised by not disrupting the natural order of the world whilemorefers to moral standards and fundamental principles governing social behavior. In anyben-morelationship，benis most important and plays a dominant role whilemoexists thanks toben. On the other hand，it is through the vehicle ofmothatbenexerts its influence. Thus the two，though different，are mutually dependent.

引例 Citations：

子夏之門人小子，當(dāng)灑掃應(yīng)對(duì)進(jìn)退，則可矣，抑末也。本之則無，如之何？(《論語·子張》)

(子夏的學(xué)生，叫他們做打掃、接待、應(yīng)對(duì)的工作，那是可以的，不過這只是末節(jié)罷了。而那些最根本性的學(xué)問卻沒有學(xué)習(xí)，這怎么行呢？)

Zixia’s students can clean，receive guests and engage in social interaction，but these are trivial things. They have not learned the fundamentals. How can this be sufficient? (TheAnalects)

崇本以舉其末。(王弼《老子注》)

(崇尚自然無為之本以統(tǒng)括道德禮法之末。)

One should respect，not interfere with，the natural order of the world，and apply this principle when establishing moral standards，social norms，and laws and regulations. (Wang Bi：CommentariesonLaozi)

5.般若 /bōrě/

Buddhist Wisdom

梵文prajnā 的音譯(或譯為“波若”)。意為“智慧”，指能洞見一切事物本性、認(rèn)識(shí)萬物真相的最高的智慧。佛教認(rèn)為，“般若”是超越一切世俗認(rèn)識(shí)的特殊智慧，是覺悟得道、修成佛或菩薩的所有修行方法的指南或根本。然而，這種智慧本身無形無相，不可言說，僅能依賴各種方便法門而有所領(lǐng)悟。

The term is the transliteration of the Sanskrit wordprajnā，meaning wisdom. It refers to the supreme wisdom with insight into the nature and reality of all things. Buddhism believes that such wisdom surpasses all secular understandings and therefore is the guide for or essence of the effort aimed at achieving enlightenment and attaining Buddhahood or bodhisattvahood. This wisdom has no form，no appearance and cannot be expressed in words. It can only be achieved by undertaking a variety of accessible Buddhist practices.

引例 Citation：

般若無所知，無所見。(僧肇《肇論》引《道行般若經(jīng)》)

(般若這種智慧不是普通的知識(shí)，也超越一切具體的見聞。)

Praj? is the wisdom that surpasses all common or ordinary knowledge and specific understandings. (Sengzhao：TreatisesofSengzhao)

6.不學(xué)《詩(shī)》，無以言 /bù xué shī wú yǐ yán/

You won’t be able to talk properly with others without studyingTheBookofSongs.

不學(xué)習(xí)《詩(shī)經(jīng)》，就不能提高與人交流和表達(dá)的能力?？鬃訒r(shí)代，《詩(shī)經(jīng)》象征著一個(gè)人的社會(huì)身份與文化修養(yǎng)。不學(xué)習(xí)《詩(shī)經(jīng)》，就無法參與君子間的各種交往，就不能提高語言表達(dá)能力?？鬃訉?duì)《詩(shī)經(jīng)》與社會(huì)交往關(guān)系的論述，實(shí)際闡明了文學(xué)的教育功能或者說文學(xué)在教育中的重要地位。

In Confucius’ time，how well one understoodTheBookofSongswas a sign of his social status and cultural attainment. If one did not study it，one would find it difficult to improve one’s ability to express oneself and to converse with people of high social status. Confucius’ elaboration on the relationship between studyingTheBookofSongsand social interaction actually expounds on the importance of literature in education.

引例 Citation：

嘗獨(dú)立，鯉過于庭。曰：“學(xué)《詩(shī)》乎？”對(duì)曰：“未也。”“不學(xué)《詩(shī)》，無以言?！?《論語·季氏》)

(孔子曾獨(dú)自站在堂上，兒子伯魚從堂下庭院經(jīng)過，孔子問他：“學(xué)習(xí)《詩(shī)經(jīng)》了嗎？”伯魚回答：“沒有。”孔子說：“不學(xué)習(xí)《詩(shī)經(jīng)》，就不會(huì)交流與表達(dá)?！?

Confucius was standing alone in the central hall when his son Boyu walked across the front yard. Confucius asked，“Have you studiedTheBookofSongs?” “Not yet，” was the reply. Confucius then said，“If you do not study it，you will not be able to express yourself properly.” (TheAnalects)

7.大同 /dàtóng/

Universal Harmony

儒家理想中的天下一家、人人平等、友愛互助的太平盛世(與“小康”相對(duì))。儒家認(rèn)為它是人類社會(huì)發(fā)展的最高階段，類似于西方的烏托邦。其主要特征是：權(quán)力和財(cái)富歸社會(huì)公有；社會(huì)平等，安居樂業(yè)；人人能得到社會(huì)的關(guān)愛；貨盡其用，人盡其力。清末民初，“大同”又被用來指稱西方傳來的社會(huì)主義、共產(chǎn)主義、世界主義等概念。

This term refers to the time of peace and prosperity envisioned by Confucian scholars when all the people under heaven are one family，equal，friendly and helpful to each other (as opposed toxiaokang[小康]—minor or moderate prosperity). Confucianism takes universal harmony as the supreme stage of the development of the human society，somewhat similar to the idea of utopia in the West. Its main features are：All power and wealth belong to the whole of society；all people are equal and live and work in peace and contentment；everyone is cared for by society；everything is used to its fullest and everyone works to his maximum potential. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China，the term referred to the concepts of socialism，communism or cosmopolitanism that had been introduced to China from the West.

引例 Citation：

大道之行也，天下為公，選賢與能，講信修睦。故人不獨(dú)親其親，不獨(dú)子其子，使老有所終，壯有所用，幼有所長(zhǎng)，矜寡孤獨(dú)廢疾者，皆有所養(yǎng)……是謂大同。(《禮記·禮運(yùn)》)

(大道實(shí)行的時(shí)代，天下為百姓所共有，品德高尚、才能突出的人被選拔出來管理社會(huì)，人與人之間講究誠(chéng)實(shí)與和睦。所以人們不僅僅愛自己的雙親，不僅僅撫養(yǎng)自己的子女，而是使老年人都能終其天年，壯年人都有用武之地，幼童都能得到撫育，無妻或喪妻的年老男子、無夫或喪夫的年老女子、喪父的兒童、無子女的老人以及殘障者都能得到照顧和供養(yǎng)……這就叫做大同社會(huì)。)

When greatdaoprevails，the whole world is owned by all the people. Those who are virtuous and competent are selected as administrators. People treat each other with sincerity and live in harmony. People not only love their parents，bring up their children，but also take care of the aged. The middle-aged are able to put their talents and abilities to best use，children are well nurtured and old widows and widower，sunmarried old people，orphans，childless old people and the disabled are all provided for… This is universal harmony. (TheBookofRites)

8.德 /dé/

De

“德”有兩種不同含義：其一，指?jìng)€(gè)人的良好品格或人們?cè)谏鐣?huì)共同生活中的良好品行。“德”原初的意義與行為有關(guān)，主要指外在的道德行為，后兼指與道德行為相應(yīng)的內(nèi)在的情感、意識(shí)，“德”被認(rèn)為是外在的道德行為與內(nèi)在的道德情感、道德意識(shí)的結(jié)合。其二，指事物從“道”所得的特殊規(guī)律或特性，是幽隱無形的“道”的具體顯現(xiàn)，也是事物產(chǎn)生和存在的內(nèi)在依據(jù)。

The term has two different meanings. One is an individual’s fine moral character or his proper conduct in society. Firstde(德) was only related to an individual’s behavior，referring to his external moral conduct. Later，it also referred to something that combined external behavior with internal emotions and moral consciousness. The other meaning ofderefers to the special laws and features obtained fromdaoor the physical manifestation of the hidden and formlessdaoas well as the internal basis for the origination and existence of all things.

引例 Citations：

天生烝民，有物有則，民之秉彝，好是懿德。(《詩(shī)經(jīng)·大雅·烝民》)

(上天降生眾民，有事物就有法則，民眾遵守普遍的法則，崇好這樣的美德。)

Heaven gives birth to people，provides them with goods and materials，and subjects them to rules. People obey universal rules and value virtues. (TheBookofSongs)

道生之，德畜之。(《老子·五十一章》)

(道生成萬物，德蓄養(yǎng)萬物。)

Daocreates all things under heaven whiledenurtures them. (Laozi)

9.發(fā)憤著書 /fāfèn-zhùshū/

Indignation spurs one to write great works.

因在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中遭遇不平而下決心寫出傳世著作。源出《史記·太史公自序》。西漢司馬遷在遭受宮刑后，強(qiáng)烈的憤懣情緒成為他創(chuàng)作《史記》的驅(qū)動(dòng)力。他借《史記》表達(dá)自己的思想、感情、志向，最終使著作流傳于世?！鞍l(fā)憤著書”后多用來解釋優(yōu)秀的文藝作品的創(chuàng)作動(dòng)機(jī)和原因。這一術(shù)語揭示了優(yōu)秀的文學(xué)作品的產(chǎn)生往往與作者個(gè)人的不幸遭遇有直接關(guān)聯(lián)。后世在此基礎(chǔ)上又衍生出“不平則鳴”“詩(shī)窮而后工”等觀點(diǎn)。

This term means suffering injustice in life can spur one to create great works. It originated from the “Preface by the Grand Historian toRecordsoftheHistorian.” After Sima Qian，an official in the Western Han Dynasty suffered the unjust punishment of castration，his indignation spurred him to write the great work，RecordsoftheHistorian. In the book he gave expression to his thoughts，feelings and aspirations，which made the book a classic for later generations. The expression “indignation spurs one to write great works” was used to explain one of the motivations and reasons for creating masterpieces. It points to the fact that injustice suffered by an author often turns out to be the source of inspiration for him to write a literary masterpiece. It later led to similar terms like “Where there is injustice there will be an expression of indignation” and “Frustration inspires poets to write fine poems.”

引例 Citations：

惜誦以致愍兮，發(fā)憤以抒情。(屈原《九章·惜誦》)

(痛惜直言進(jìn)諫卻招致讒毀疏遠(yuǎn)，懷著一腔憂憤抒發(fā)衷情。)

I am saddened that my frank remonstration with the king has brought false accusations on me and left me in exile. In anguish and indignation，I am writing these poems to express my strong feelings. (Qu Yuan：CollectionofNinePieces)

《詩(shī)》三百篇，大抵圣賢發(fā)憤之所為作也。此人皆意有所郁結(jié)，不得通其道，故述往事、思來者。(司馬遷《報(bào)任安書》)

(《詩(shī)經(jīng)》三百篇，大都是圣賢抒發(fā)憂憤而創(chuàng)作出來的。這些人都是情意郁結(jié)，不能實(shí)現(xiàn)志向，所以記述往事，希望將來的人能夠了解。)

Most of the 300 poems inTheBookofSongswere written by sages who were in anguish and indignation. They were depressed over what had prevented them from fulfilling their aspirations，so they composed poems about what had happened in the hope that future generations would understand them. (Sima Qian：ALetterofReplytoRenAn)

10.法治 /fǎzhì/

Rule by Law

以法治國(guó)，是站在君主的角度，主張君主通過制定并嚴(yán)格執(zhí)行法令、規(guī)章來治理民眾和國(guó)家(與“人治”相對(duì))，是先秦時(shí)期法家的重要政治思想。法家的“法治”思想有賞罰分明的一面，也有過于嚴(yán)苛、剛硬的弊端。自漢朝以迄清朝，“法治”和“人治”，各王朝多兼而用之。近代以降，“法治”因西學(xué)東漸而被賦予新的含義。

Rule by law，as opposed to rule by man，calls for ruling a state and its people by the ruler through enacting and strictly enforcing laws and regulations. It is an important political thought of the Legalist scholars in the pre-Qin period. Rule by law meted out well-defined rewards and punishments，but tended to be excessively severe and rigid in enforcement. From the Han Dynasty all the way to the Qing Dynasty，rule by law and rule by man were exercised by various dynasties，mostly in combination. With the spread of Western thoughts to China in more recent times，rule by law acquired new meanings.

引例 Citations：

是故先王之治國(guó)也，不淫意于法之外，不為惠于法之內(nèi)也。(《管子·明法》)

(所以先王治國(guó)，不在法度外恣意妄為，也不在法度內(nèi)私行恩惠。)

When our forefathers ruled the state，they did not act unscrupulously in disregard of law，nor did they bestow personal favors within the framework of law. (Guanzi)

故法治者，治之極軌也，而通五洲萬國(guó)數(shù)千年間。其最初發(fā)明此法治主義，以成一家言者誰乎？則我國(guó)之管子也！(梁?jiǎn)⒊?管子評(píng)傳》)

(所以法治就是治理國(guó)家的最高模式，它通行于五大洲萬國(guó)的數(shù)千年歷史之中。那么最初發(fā)明法治主義，成為一家之言的人是誰呢？是我國(guó)的管子啊！)

Thereforerule by law is the supreme way to rule a country. It has been exercised by numerous countries in the world for several thousand years. Who conceived this idea and developed it into a theory of governance? It was none other than our fellow countryman Guanzi! (Liang Qichao：ACriticalBiographyofGuanzi)

11.風(fēng)雅頌 /fēngyǎsòng/

Ballad Court Hymnand Eulogy

《詩(shī)經(jīng)》中依體裁與音樂對(duì)詩(shī)歌所分出的類型?！帮L(fēng)(國(guó)風(fēng))”是不同地區(qū)的地方音樂，大部分是民歌；“雅”是宮廷宴享或朝會(huì)時(shí)的樂歌，分為“大雅”與“小雅”，大部分是貴族文人的作品；“頌”是宗廟祭祀用的舞曲歌辭，內(nèi)容多是歌頌祖先的功業(yè)?！把拧薄绊灐敝秆耪?，而“國(guó)風(fēng)”系民間樂歌，因此“風(fēng)雅頌”既是《詩(shī)經(jīng)》的體裁，同時(shí)也有高雅純正的含義?！帮L(fēng)雅”后來一般指典雅與高雅的事物。

InTheBookofSongsthe content is divided into three categories according to style and tune：feng(ballad)，ya(court hymn)andsong(eulogy). Ballads are music from different regionsmostly folk songs. Court hymns divided intodaya(major hymn) andxiaoya(minor hymn) are songs sung at court banquets or grand ceremonies. They are mostly the works by lettered noblemen. Eulogies are ritual or sacrificial dance music and songsmost of which praise the achievements of ancestors. Court hymns and eulogies are highbrow songs while ballads are lowbrow ones. Therefore，ballads，court hymns，and eulogies not only refer to the styles ofTheBookofSongsbut also classify the songs into highbrow and lowbrow categories. Later onfengya(風(fēng)雅) generally referred to anything elegant.

引例 Citations：

故《詩(shī)》有六義焉：一曰風(fēng)，二曰賦，三曰比，四曰興，五曰雅，六曰頌。(《詩(shī)大序》)

(所以《詩(shī)經(jīng)》有六項(xiàng)基本內(nèi)容，即風(fēng)、賦、比、興、雅、頌。)

ThereforeTheBookofSongshas six basic elements：ballads，narratives，analogies，associations，court hymns，and eulogies. (Preface toTheBookofSongs)

“三經(jīng)”是賦、比、興，是做詩(shī)底骨子，無詩(shī)不有，才無則不成詩(shī)。蓋不是賦便是比，不是比便是興。如風(fēng)、雅、頌卻是里面橫串底，都有賦、比、興，故謂之“三緯”。(《朱子語類》卷八十)

(《詩(shī)經(jīng)》中的“三經(jīng)”指賦、比、興，是作詩(shī)的骨架，所有的詩(shī)都有，如果沒有就不成詩(shī)。大概是沒有賦就得有比，沒有比就得有興。像風(fēng)、雅、頌在詩(shī)歌里面卻起橫向的連接作用，詩(shī)歌中都得有賦、比、興，所以將風(fēng)、雅、頌稱為“三緯”。)

The three “l(fā)ongitudes” ofTheBookofSongsrefer to narrative，analogy and association，which serve as the frame of a poem. Without these，they could not be called poems. If narrative is not used in a poem，analogy must be used；if analogy is not used，association must be employed. Ballads from the states，court hymns，and eulogies play a connecting role in the poems. Since the poems have narrative，analogy，and association serving as the “l(fā)ongitudes，” ballads from the states，court hymns，and eulogies are therefore called the three “l(fā)atitudes.” (ClassifiedConversationsofMasterZhuXi)

12.封建 /fēngjiàn/

Feudal System/Feudalism

即封邦建國(guó)。古代帝王將爵位、土地和人口分封給親戚和功臣，讓他們?cè)诜獾貎?nèi)建國(guó)。各封國(guó)規(guī)模小于王室直轄領(lǐng)地；在遵循王室統(tǒng)治秩序的前提下，各封國(guó)在軍、政等方面具有很高的自主性；封國(guó)之間相互制衡，共同拱衛(wèi)王室。封國(guó)的世襲要經(jīng)王室確認(rèn)，并按規(guī)定向王室繳納貢賦。作為一種政治制度，封建制相傳始于黃帝時(shí)期，至西周時(shí)期達(dá)于完備；它與基于血緣家族制而形成的宗法制互為表里，并隨之衍生出等級(jí)身份制等。秦始皇統(tǒng)一中國(guó)后，廢除封建制，實(shí)行郡縣制。自此直到清代，在中國(guó)占主導(dǎo)地位的是中央集權(quán)制或?qū)Ｖ频壑?；而“封建”作為專制帝制下的一種輔助性手段，或隱或顯地存在著。

In feudalism，the lord granted titles of nobility，fiefs，and people to his relatives and officials and allowed them to establish dukedoms. A fief was smaller than the territory under the direct control of the lord. While obeying the rule of the lord，a dukedom enjoyed a high degree of autonomy in its military and administrative affairs. Dukedoms checked each other in the protection of the lord. A dukedom might be passed down genetically upon the approval of the lord and was required to pay tribute to him. As a political system，feudalism is believed to have started in the era of the legendary Yellow Emperor，and became established in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Feudalism was akin to the patriarchal clan system based on blood ties and gave rise to a hierarchy system. After Qinshihuang，the first emperor of Qin，reunified China，he abolished feudalism in favor of the system of prefectures and counties. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty，centralized government or imperial autocracy was dominant in China，rendering feudalism，which existed overtly or covertly，supplementary.

引例 Citation：

彼封建者，更古圣王堯、舜、禹、湯、文、武而莫能去之。(柳宗元《封建論》)

(封建制經(jīng)歷了上古的圣賢之王堯、舜、禹、商湯、周文王、周武王也沒有能廢除它。)

Feudal system survived the eras of all ancient sages，namely Yao，Shun，Yu the Great，Tang of Shang，King Wen of Zhou，and King Wu of Zhou. (Liu Zongyuan：OnFeudalSystem)

選自“中華思想文化術(shù)語”系列圖書(外語教學(xué)與研究出版社出版)