二語(yǔ)教師話語(yǔ)中的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)

二語(yǔ)教師話語(yǔ)中的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)

姚劍鵬

(寧波工程學(xué)院,寧波,315211)

摘要:修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)是啟動(dòng)者運(yùn)用言語(yǔ)和非言語(yǔ)手段對(duì)監(jiān)控到的言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤向交際對(duì)方發(fā)出修補(bǔ)信號(hào)的行為。它在會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ)過(guò)程中起著關(guān)鍵的作用。本文以我國(guó)二語(yǔ)課堂師生互動(dòng)環(huán)境為背景,針對(duì)課堂話語(yǔ)中教師對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者的自我修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)行為,分啟動(dòng)者、啟動(dòng)位和啟動(dòng)技巧等方面進(jìn)行梳理,并結(jié)合課堂語(yǔ)料,討論教師修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)的特征及其作用。

關(guān)鍵詞:會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ),修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng),修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)者,修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)位,修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧

[中圖分類號(hào)]H08

doi[編碼] 10.3969/j.issn.1674-8921.2015.09.013

作者簡(jiǎn)介:姚劍鵬,寧波工程學(xué)院外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院教授、博士。主要研究方向?yàn)樵捳Z(yǔ)分析、認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)。電子郵箱:yjpjimmy@126.com

1. 引言

教師話語(yǔ)是課堂教學(xué)的組成部分,起著修補(bǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤、評(píng)判學(xué)習(xí)者表現(xiàn)、向?qū)W習(xí)者提供可理解性輸入和輸出,以及充當(dāng)目的語(yǔ)的信息源等作用。自20世紀(jì)50年代起,西方語(yǔ)言學(xué)界就開(kāi)始系統(tǒng)研究課堂教學(xué);到了70～80年代,對(duì)教師課堂話語(yǔ)的研究更加深入,涌現(xiàn)出大量描述和理解外語(yǔ)課堂的研究成果。近年來(lái),相關(guān)研究關(guān)注教師話語(yǔ)中的語(yǔ)碼轉(zhuǎn)換、教師提問(wèn)、課堂行為、附帶的文化信息等等。

Stoller, F. L. & W. Grabe. 1997. A six-T’s approach to content-based instruction [A]. In M. Snow. & M. Brinton (eds.).TheContent-basedClassroom:PerspectivesonIntegratingLanguageandContent[C]. New York: Longman. 78-94.

Stryker, S. B. & B. L. Leaver (eds.). 1997.Content-BasedInstructioninForeignLanguageEducation:ModelsandMethods[C]. Washington: Georgetown University Press.

The Commission on Excellence in Education. 1983.ANationatRisk:TheImperativeforEducationReform[R]. Department of Education, Washington. 9-11.

常俊躍.2014.英語(yǔ)專業(yè)內(nèi)容依托課程體系改革的影響及其啟示[J].解放軍外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)(5):25-31.

董毓.2014.我們應(yīng)該教什么樣的批判性思維課程[J].工業(yè)與信息化教育(3):36-42.

高有華.2011.課程基礎(chǔ)理論及應(yīng)用[M].鎮(zhèn)江:江蘇大學(xué)出版社.

谷振詣.2006.批判性思維教程[M].北京:北京大學(xué)出版社.

黃源深.1998.思辨缺席[J].外語(yǔ)與外語(yǔ)教學(xué)(7):1-2.

黃源深.2010.英語(yǔ)專業(yè)課程必須徹底改革——再談思辨缺席[J].外語(yǔ)界(1):11-16.

加里·卡比、杰弗里·古德帕斯特.2010.思維——批判性和創(chuàng)造性思維的跨學(xué)科研究(韓廣忠譯)[M].北京:中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社.

克拉克·克爾.2001.高等教育不能回避歷史——21世紀(jì)的問(wèn)題(王承緒譯)[M].杭州:浙江教育出版社.

李莉莉.2014.英語(yǔ)專業(yè)文學(xué)課程與思辨能力培養(yǎng)[A].王鎮(zhèn)平、金利民.英語(yǔ)知識(shí)課程教學(xué)與思辨能力培養(yǎng)研究[C].北京:外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社.62-34.

繆四平.2007.美國(guó)批判性思維運(yùn)動(dòng)對(duì)大學(xué)素質(zhì)教育的啟發(fā)[J].清華大學(xué)教育研究(3):99-105.

劉學(xué)利、傅義贛、張繼瑜.2012.課程與教學(xué)論[M].北京:中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社.

羅清旭.2002.批判性思維理論及其測(cè)評(píng)技術(shù)研究[D].南京:南京師范大學(xué)。

洛林·安德森.2009.布魯姆教育目標(biāo)分類學(xué)(蔣小平譯)[M].北京:外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社.

邱誼萌.2015.大學(xué)英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)生批判性思維能力的培養(yǎng)[J].海外英語(yǔ)(3):52-53.

施良方.1996.課程理論——課程的基礎(chǔ)原理與問(wèn)題[M].北京:教育科學(xué)出版社.

孫有中.2011.突出思辨能力培養(yǎng),將英語(yǔ)專業(yè)教學(xué)改革引向深入[J].中國(guó)外語(yǔ)(3):49-58.

王本陸.2004.課程與教學(xué)論[M].北京:高等教育出版社.

王克喜.2007.非形式邏輯與批判性思維[M].北京:線裝書(shū)局.

王習(xí)勝.2006.批判性思維及其技能研究[J].揚(yáng)州大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào):高教研究版(2):6-9.

文秋芳、周燕.2006.評(píng)述外語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)生思維能力的發(fā)展[J].外語(yǔ)學(xué)刊(5):76-80.

文秋芳.2012.中國(guó)外語(yǔ)類大學(xué)生思辨能力現(xiàn)狀研究[M].外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社.

汪霞.2001.課程設(shè)計(jì)的幾個(gè)基本問(wèn)題[J].教育理論與實(shí)踐(11):54-59.

楊立軍.2011.百年哈佛經(jīng)典法則[M].上海:學(xué)林出版社。

姚利民.2001.國(guó)外對(duì)教學(xué)促進(jìn)大學(xué)生批判性思維發(fā)展的研究及啟示[J].高等理科教育(5):18-21.

伊凡·漢耐爾.2003.高效提問(wèn):建構(gòu)批判性思維技能的七步法(黃潔華譯)[M].汕頭:汕頭大學(xué)出版社.

約翰·杜威.2004.我們?cè)鯓铀季S:經(jīng)驗(yàn)與教育(姜文閡譯)[M].北京:人民教育出版社.

張華、石偉平、馬慶發(fā).2000.課程流派研究[M].濟(jì)南:山東教育出版社.

周建武、武宏志.2012.批判性思維教程——邏輯推理與論證[M].北京:對(duì)外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)出版社.

(責(zé)任編輯吳詩(shī)玉)

然而,從整個(gè)研究來(lái)看,教師話語(yǔ)的研究視角還較為狹窄,仍“可以對(duì)教師話語(yǔ)從諸如自我修正、非流利因子、韻律等多角度進(jìn)行研究”(周學(xué)恒、鄧曉明2012:112)。從教師話語(yǔ)本身來(lái)看,在我國(guó)二語(yǔ)課堂里,還存在著諸如形式與功能單一、簡(jiǎn)化和單向等問(wèn)題(張敏2012:41);開(kāi)放性的、激發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)者想象力和發(fā)散思維的提問(wèn)比例還極少(何安平2003:169),因此,充分發(fā)揮教師話語(yǔ)作用以促進(jìn)學(xué)習(xí)者的語(yǔ)言習(xí)得尤為必要,從會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ)視角研究教師話語(yǔ)有其實(shí)踐和運(yùn)用價(jià)值,而針對(duì)教師話語(yǔ)中的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)展開(kāi)研究也有其意義所在。

會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ)是話者在交際過(guò)程中對(duì)所監(jiān)控到的各類言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤進(jìn)行自我改正的行為。它充斥在人類自然言語(yǔ)當(dāng)中,也常見(jiàn)于二語(yǔ)課堂,是衡量學(xué)習(xí)者二語(yǔ)習(xí)得成功與否的關(guān)鍵因素。通過(guò)修補(bǔ),學(xué)習(xí)者獲得理解了的輸入和可理解性輸出(Cho 2008:18)。要想獲得此效果,學(xué)習(xí)者的修補(bǔ)意識(shí)要加強(qiáng),對(duì)修補(bǔ)的啟動(dòng)要得法。本文以我國(guó)二語(yǔ)課堂師生互動(dòng)環(huán)境為背景,針對(duì)課堂話語(yǔ)中教師對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者的自我修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)行為,分啟動(dòng)者、啟動(dòng)位和啟動(dòng)技巧等方面進(jìn)行梳理,并結(jié)合課堂語(yǔ)料,討論教師修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)的特征及其作用。

2. 教師修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)

Terzi(2010:777)認(rèn)為修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)是“其中一個(gè)對(duì)話者就所檢測(cè)到的語(yǔ)誤發(fā)出信號(hào)的過(guò)程”。國(guó)內(nèi)學(xué)者馬文(2004,引自朱婭蓉2010:66)則將其定義為“引出自我修正或要求他人進(jìn)行修正的一個(gè)信號(hào)”。我們認(rèn)為,兩定義均欠完整,故提出下列定義:修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)是啟動(dòng)者在監(jiān)控到語(yǔ)誤之后通過(guò)言語(yǔ)或非言語(yǔ)手段向交際對(duì)方發(fā)出修補(bǔ)信號(hào)并啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),以便后者實(shí)施修補(bǔ)的行為,達(dá)到理想化交流和習(xí)得語(yǔ)言的目的。

2.1修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)者

1977年,Schegloff等人在對(duì)會(huì)話修補(bǔ)的研究中,提出了修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)這一概念。他們將啟動(dòng)分為自啟(self-initiation)和他啟(other-initiation),并將會(huì)話修補(bǔ)分為自啟/自補(bǔ)(self-initiation/self-repair)、自啟/他補(bǔ)(self-initiation/other-repair)、他啟/自補(bǔ)(other-initiation/self-repair)和他啟/他補(bǔ)(other-initiation/other repair)等四種修補(bǔ)類型。可見(jiàn),從啟動(dòng)者角度來(lái)劃分,修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)有話者本人(自啟)或其他話者(他啟)所作的啟動(dòng)(Yasui 2010:43)。

例1①顯示了話者自啟自補(bǔ)的特點(diǎn)和過(guò)程。話者Alina發(fā)現(xiàn)了言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤,隨即停止了語(yǔ)流,對(duì)言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤啟動(dòng)并實(shí)施修補(bǔ),之后再恢復(fù)語(yǔ)流。其特點(diǎn)是整個(gè)修補(bǔ)過(guò)程均在同一話輪中。例2中的Rickie似乎難以提取有關(guān)購(gòu)物袋的信息,語(yǔ)流分別暫停在“sh-”和“old be-”之后。對(duì)此,Rebecca試圖通過(guò)提供有關(guān)購(gòu)物袋信息來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),最后Rickie作了修補(bǔ)。此例中,Rebecca兩次啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)(shopping bag?和a plastic)。與例1相比,此類修補(bǔ)跨越了話輪。

(1) ALINA: ～Hector] was s- —

you know,

they were scoring?

...the...show last week?

And I—

...and I called up [to talk] to him,

(SBC0006)

(2) RICKIE: ...Like a sh=-,

...like a... [old be-,

REBECCA: [Shopping bag]?

RICKIE: Yeah]=.

a shopping [bag].

REBECCA: [a plas]tic,

RICKIE: Yeah[=]. (SBC0008)

Schegloff等人的研究還揭示,在自然言語(yǔ)環(huán)境下,自啟數(shù)量超過(guò)他啟。二語(yǔ)課堂里的情景卻不盡相同。研究指出,語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者傾向于自我修補(bǔ)而不是他人修補(bǔ)(Buckwalter 2001;Foster & Ohta 2005),其自我修補(bǔ)的頻率超過(guò)本族語(yǔ)者(Kormos 2000)。但由于諸如說(shuō)話太輕、發(fā)音不準(zhǔn)確、選詞有誤或提供了模糊的解釋等原因,學(xué)習(xí)者的交流時(shí)常遭遇失敗(Comeau & Genesee 2001),再加上本身語(yǔ)言水平有限,使得他們轉(zhuǎn)而依賴教師來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),因此,他啟自補(bǔ)在數(shù)量上超過(guò)了自啟自補(bǔ)。據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì),在二語(yǔ)課堂里,有74%的自我修補(bǔ)是由教師啟動(dòng)的(McHoul 1990:366),相比之下,由學(xué)習(xí)者自我啟動(dòng)的自我修補(bǔ)則十分缺乏(McHoul 1990:353)。

那么,在中國(guó)二語(yǔ)課堂環(huán)境下,學(xué)習(xí)者會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ)情景又如何呢?相關(guān)研究揭示,在我國(guó)的二語(yǔ)課堂話語(yǔ)中,他啟自補(bǔ)或他啟他補(bǔ)的現(xiàn)象十分突出(楊曉健2008),而且啟動(dòng)者多為教師(楊曉健2008;朱婭蓉2010)。本研究支持此類說(shuō)法,但認(rèn)為在師生互動(dòng)環(huán)境下,修補(bǔ)形式為教師啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),學(xué)習(xí)者實(shí)施自我修補(bǔ)。除此之外,還存在著生生互動(dòng)以及學(xué)習(xí)者自我言語(yǔ)的現(xiàn)象,因此,啟動(dòng)也可由另一學(xué)習(xí)者啟動(dòng),也可自我啟動(dòng),這與課堂交際形式有關(guān),與教師和學(xué)習(xí)者的角色和地位有關(guān)。

因此,根據(jù)二語(yǔ)課堂互動(dòng)環(huán)境的性質(zhì)以及參與者的角色和地位,修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)者應(yīng)以教師為主。

2.2修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)位

修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)有其較為固定的位置(placement of repair initiation)。最早指出這一現(xiàn)象的是Schegloff等人。他們指出,極大多數(shù)的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)位于同話輪、話輪轉(zhuǎn)換處或包括阻礙源話輪在內(nèi)的第三個(gè)話輪。然而,他們的研究是針對(duì)自然言語(yǔ)環(huán)境下的自我修補(bǔ),那么,二語(yǔ)課堂自我修補(bǔ)的啟動(dòng)位又如何呢?

從語(yǔ)料來(lái)看,我們認(rèn)為,二語(yǔ)課堂互動(dòng)環(huán)境下學(xué)習(xí)者自我修補(bǔ)的啟動(dòng)位在第二話輪,課堂修補(bǔ)的主要軌跡應(yīng)為他啟自補(bǔ),表現(xiàn)為三話輪修補(bǔ)模式,即阻礙源話輪(第一話輪)、修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)話輪(第二話輪)和修補(bǔ)話輪(第三話輪),亦即:

trouble source (TS, T1)→repair initiation (RI, T2)→self-repair (SR, T3)

這一結(jié)論與McHoul(1990:355)和Makinen(2008:18)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)相吻合,也得到了本文所依托的英語(yǔ)視聽(tīng)說(shuō)課堂語(yǔ)料的支持。例如:

(3) S5: And when when husband was in no mood, she knows... (TS, T1)

T: She knows how to (RI, T2)

S5: encourage and inspire his husband. (SR, T3) when when husband was in no mood, she knows... (TS, T1)

T: She knows how to (RI, T2)

S5: encourage and inspire his husband. (SR, T3)

(4) S2: Because first she is a new comer in the USA, so he must so she must find a family to support her. (TS, T1)

T: Is that so? Oh, what do you mean by supporting her, financially or? (RI1, T2)

S2: No, no no. @此處為漢語(yǔ)Support means maybe sometimes she will have some troubles in. Maybe sometimes she will feel very sad, and and, (SR1, T3)

T: So you mean a kind of spiritual supporting? (RI2, T4)

S2: Yes. (SR2, T5) first she is a new comer in the USA, so he must so she must find a family to support her. (TS, T1)

T: Is that so? Oh, what do you mean by supporting her, financially or? (RI1, T2)

S2: No, no no. @此處為漢語(yǔ)Support means maybe sometimes she will have some troubles in. Maybe sometimes she will feel very sad, and and, (SR1, T3)

T: So you mean a kind of spiritual supporting? (RI2, T4)

S2: Yes. (SR2, T5)

以上兩例均符合上述結(jié)論。例3中的教師結(jié)合視聽(tīng)說(shuō)教材內(nèi)容,組織學(xué)習(xí)者討論“心目中的理想丈夫/妻子”。于是,學(xué)習(xí)者S5認(rèn)為,當(dāng)丈夫情緒不佳時(shí),做妻子的應(yīng)該做點(diǎn)什么。然而,他顯然碰到了概念提取問(wèn)題,無(wú)法提取正確的有關(guān)妻子該做點(diǎn)什么的信息。教師隨即用重復(fù)加how to來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),為S5提供了一定的提示。S5領(lǐng)會(huì)了教師的意圖,采取即刻修補(bǔ)的策略(instant repair),直接實(shí)施了修補(bǔ)。例4中,教師T聽(tīng)到了S2的不充分信息to support her,隨即發(fā)出了質(zhì)疑,用what do you mean by結(jié)構(gòu)啟動(dòng)了對(duì)該信息的修補(bǔ),S2在第三話輪中進(jìn)行了修補(bǔ),并得到了教師的第二次修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng),在第五話輪中最終完成整個(gè)修補(bǔ)。雖然修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)和學(xué)習(xí)者的自我修補(bǔ)延續(xù)到了第4和第5個(gè)話輪,但是,其軌跡仍然是阻礙源、修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)和自我修補(bǔ)三個(gè)階段。

這樣的觀點(diǎn)也符合課堂話語(yǔ)的三步模式。1975年,伯明翰學(xué)派話語(yǔ)分析法代表人物Sinclair和Coulhard提出IRF課堂話語(yǔ)模式,即教師的引發(fā)步(initiating move)、學(xué)習(xí)者的應(yīng)答步(responding move)和教師的反饋步(feedback move)。之后因避免語(yǔ)義歧義,他們將第三步feedback修改為follow-up。1979年,Mehan提出IRE模式,即教師提出問(wèn)題(initiation)、學(xué)生回答(response)與教師評(píng)價(jià)(evaluation)三步。1990年,McHoul將IRE模式修正為IREC模式,即教師提出問(wèn)題(initiation)、學(xué)生回答(reply)、教師評(píng)價(jià)(evaluation)和學(xué)生或教師改正(correction)。

我們認(rèn)為,在課堂師生互動(dòng)環(huán)境下,話語(yǔ)模式應(yīng)為T(mén)IR模式,即學(xué)生產(chǎn)生阻礙源步(trouble source move,T),教師引發(fā)修補(bǔ)步(repair initiation move,I),學(xué)生做出修補(bǔ)步(self-repair move,R)。這是因?yàn)樯鲜瞿Ｊ诫m有其可取之處,卻忽視了引發(fā)教師啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)的源頭即學(xué)生的阻礙源;從課堂話語(yǔ)的實(shí)際來(lái)看,師生互動(dòng)主要是針對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者的言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤而引發(fā)的,理應(yīng)將學(xué)生的阻礙源考慮進(jìn)去。例如:

(5) S5: Ah, I like a movie directed by Jay, ahTheSecretTheSecretThatCan’tTell.

T: En, OK.

S5: I like it very much. I I watch this movie at least five times. I think it’s ah it’s very move. (T)

T: It’s very moving. (I)

S5: It’s very moving. Er, ah, (R) I like a movie directed by Jay, ahTheSecretTheSecretThatCan’tTell.

T: En, OK.

S5: I like it very much. I I watch this movie at least five times. I think it’s ah it’s very move. (T)

T: It’s very moving. (I)

S5: It’s very moving. Er, ah, (R)

上例中,學(xué)生在言語(yǔ)表達(dá)中認(rèn)為上述影片非常感人,因此看了至少五遍,但是,他將感人的詞語(yǔ)選錯(cuò)了,該用“moving”,但提取了錯(cuò)詞“move”,詞匯使用錯(cuò)誤,產(chǎn)生了阻礙源步。在下一話輪中,教師監(jiān)控到了學(xué)生的言語(yǔ)偏誤,隨即啟動(dòng)了修補(bǔ),引發(fā)了修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)步。這里,教師直接采用了顯性糾錯(cuò)策略。學(xué)生S5領(lǐng)會(huì)了教師的糾錯(cuò)信息,因此重復(fù)了教師的修正信息加以自我修補(bǔ),并用填充詞er和ah加以肯定,完成了修補(bǔ)步。

2.3修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧

修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧指的是會(huì)話修補(bǔ)的啟動(dòng)者利用言語(yǔ)和非言語(yǔ)手段來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)的技巧。從言語(yǔ)上來(lái)劃分,有填充詞huh、um等;疑問(wèn)詞what、who、where、when等;部分重復(fù)加上疑問(wèn)詞或部分重復(fù)、重復(fù)等以及you mean加上對(duì)前話輪的理解話語(yǔ)等。從非言語(yǔ)上來(lái)劃分,有語(yǔ)流暫停、語(yǔ)音拉長(zhǎng)、詞尾音拉長(zhǎng)、詞間停頓、語(yǔ)調(diào)打斷、手勢(shì)、目視等(Seedhouse 2004:146;Hennoste 2005:83),還包括喉塞音、升調(diào)等(Buckwalter 2001)。

Liebscher和Dailey-O’Cain(2003:379-388)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)了以下修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)策略有:(1)教師使用話語(yǔ)標(biāo)記詞hmm?等來(lái)提示語(yǔ)誤并啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ);(2)教師用hmm?以及重復(fù)學(xué)習(xí)者言語(yǔ)來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ);(3)教師用語(yǔ)碼轉(zhuǎn)換來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ);(4)重復(fù)以修正;(5)重復(fù)以確認(rèn);(6)部分重復(fù)加疑問(wèn)詞;(7)教師的理解檢查加語(yǔ)碼轉(zhuǎn)換和解釋;(8)教師用in what way等句型要求解釋,等等。需要指出的是,上述修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)策略還有強(qiáng)、弱之分,并形成了一定的等級(jí),而且偏強(qiáng)啟動(dòng)勝過(guò)偏弱啟動(dòng)(Schegloff 2007:101)。

關(guān)于我國(guó)二語(yǔ)課堂的教師修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧,國(guó)內(nèi)研究似不多見(jiàn)。現(xiàn)有對(duì)技巧的分類均延續(xù)西方研究者的劃分,即非特定的pardon等、重復(fù)要求、部分重復(fù)加疑問(wèn)詞、部分重復(fù)、要求釋義、翻譯和解釋等(楊曉健2008;崔海迪2011)。

根據(jù)本文依托的語(yǔ)料,共發(fā)現(xiàn)了wh型、you mean型、重復(fù)型、一般疑問(wèn)句型和其它型等教師修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧。

2.3.1wh型

語(yǔ)料顯示,教師習(xí)慣用what、which等特殊疑問(wèn)句來(lái)表達(dá)自己對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者言語(yǔ)的疑問(wèn),要求學(xué)習(xí)者進(jìn)一步加以澄清或釋義。例如:

(6) S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.

T: A boy. Which boy? The younger one or the elder one? Here is the problem. Maybe some of you think just the the elder one, the Richard. The younger one that’s Robbie

S1: Robbie. think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.

T: A boy. Which boy? The younger one or the elder one? Here is the problem. Maybe some of you think just the the elder one, the Richard. The younger one that’s Robbie

S1: Robbie.

例6中,教師要求學(xué)習(xí)者指出誰(shuí)是讓女孩一見(jiàn)鐘情的男孩,是Richard還是Robbie,最后,學(xué)習(xí)者S1認(rèn)為是Robbie。

2.3.2you mean型

從語(yǔ)料來(lái)上看,you mean型明顯起著理解確認(rèn)的作用。例如:

(7) T: Oh, you want to be a pilot.

S7: Yes.

T: Pilot. You mean in the air?

S7: Yeah.

T: Up the air?

S7: Not for the travelers or businessmen, nut during the natural disasters, I can fly to the areas to help the people. you want to be a pilot.

S7: Yes.

T: Pilot. You mean in the air?

S7: Yeah.

T: Up the air?

S7: Not for the travelers or businessmen, nut during the natural disasters, I can fly to the areas to help the people.

例7中,教師要學(xué)習(xí)者談個(gè)人今后想要從事的理想職業(yè)。S7表示想當(dāng)飛行員。教師做出理解確認(rèn)后,學(xué)生意識(shí)到pilot的多層意思,所以再次確認(rèn),并啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)兩次。

2.3.3重復(fù)型

此類重復(fù)有三種類型組成,即完全重復(fù)、部分重復(fù)以及部分重復(fù)加wh詞。例如:

(8) S6: My family has three laws.

T: Oh, your family has three laws, oh, how does it mean?

S6: The first law is that my wife should listen to me. family has three laws.

T: Oh, your family has three laws, oh, how does it mean?

S6: The first law is that my wife should listen to me.

(9) S7: First, I want to say feel sorry about this.

T: Be sorry about what?

S7: My true ideal job has nothing to do with my major. I want to say feel sorry about this.

T: Be sorry about what?

S7: My true ideal job has nothing to do with my major.

例8顯示,教師重復(fù)了S6的全部信息,由此啟動(dòng)了對(duì)該信息的修補(bǔ)。例9的教師重復(fù)了部分單詞,然后再加上wh疑問(wèn)詞,要求S7做出進(jìn)一步的解釋性修補(bǔ),而學(xué)生進(jìn)行了相應(yīng)信息修補(bǔ)。

2.3.4一般疑問(wèn)句型

教師還會(huì)用一般疑問(wèn)句形式啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)。例如:

(10) S1: Ah, I think she is on purpose.

T: Ah, she left her bag on purpose. Do you have particular reason for doing that?

S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy. I think she is on purpose.

T: Ah, she left her bag on purpose. Do you have particular reason for doing that?

S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.

上例中,教師用一般疑問(wèn)句Do you have啟動(dòng)了修補(bǔ),要求學(xué)習(xí)者給予進(jìn)一步的澄清。S1在接下去的言語(yǔ)中做出了相應(yīng)的解釋。

2.3.5其他型

(11) W/C: Vice president

T: She is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語(yǔ)Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語(yǔ)Just a department for a company.此處為漢語(yǔ)Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語(yǔ)音頻播放部分You just listen is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語(yǔ)Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語(yǔ)Just a department for a company.此處為漢語(yǔ)Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語(yǔ)音頻播放部分You just listen president

T: She is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語(yǔ)Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語(yǔ)Just a department for a company.此處為漢語(yǔ)Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語(yǔ)音頻播放部分You just listen is the vice president of who?

W/C: Children.

T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此處為漢語(yǔ)Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for

W/C: Toy company.

T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此處為漢語(yǔ)Just a department for a company.此處為漢語(yǔ)Let me spend one more minute.此處為漢語(yǔ)音頻播放部分You just listen

本例教師先用一句肯定句加疑問(wèn)詞啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),然后從小孩的特性入手,將討論引導(dǎo)到小孩喜歡的玩具,再引導(dǎo)到玩具公司,最后通過(guò)錄音,確定了主人公的最后職務(wù)。這樣,通過(guò)一系列的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)和啟發(fā)式引導(dǎo),最后才弄清了具體的信息。

(12) S6: My ideal job

T: You ideal job is

S6: Is to be a superstar@

T: Superstar in Chinese you mean此處為漢語(yǔ)

S6: Oh,no.此處為漢語(yǔ)

T:此處為漢語(yǔ)

例11中的教師通過(guò)層層誘導(dǎo),不斷啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),最終產(chǎn)生完整的修補(bǔ)信息。例12中的教師采用的方法也是誘導(dǎo)。她通過(guò)重復(fù)加添加的方式,引導(dǎo)學(xué)習(xí)者予以修補(bǔ),并使信息完整。

3. 教師修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)的作用

修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧如果運(yùn)用得好,在教學(xué)實(shí)踐上一定會(huì)起到推動(dòng)作用。我們將上述技巧運(yùn)用到英語(yǔ)視聽(tīng)說(shuō)課的師生互動(dòng)當(dāng)中,得到如下實(shí)踐效果。

3.1提升注意力

教師能夠?qū)W(xué)習(xí)者的言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤提供修補(bǔ)反饋并采取有效策略啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),關(guān)鍵是教師能監(jiān)控并識(shí)別學(xué)習(xí)者的言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤,其中注意機(jī)制起著關(guān)鍵的作用。因?yàn)檫@一修補(bǔ)現(xiàn)象的實(shí)質(zhì)是教師把“注意”隨機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)移到語(yǔ)言形式特征上,從而達(dá)到“提升注意力”之目的,進(jìn)而糾正錯(cuò)誤。例如:

(13) S2: Very nice father. And I think he is also very educated.

T: Very educated? We we called a person well-educated.

S2: Yeah, well-educated. And I think he is very calm because he can’t find the way and it is the first time for his blind dating. But he is very calm.

T: Yeah, not moody at all. nice father. And I think he is also very educated.

T: Very educated? We we called a person well-educated.

S2: Yeah, well-educated. And I think he is very calm because he can’t find the way and it is the first time for his blind dating. But he is very calm.

T: Yeah, not moody at all.

上例中,當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者S2說(shuō)到視聽(tīng)材料中的人物是非常不錯(cuò)的父親,又顯得很有文化(very educated)時(shí),教師監(jiān)控到了語(yǔ)誤,并用重復(fù)加疑問(wèn)句升調(diào)的形式啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),做出了正確與否的評(píng)判,并給出了準(zhǔn)確的信息。學(xué)習(xí)者明白了錯(cuò)誤并實(shí)施了修補(bǔ)。這樣,達(dá)到了使學(xué)習(xí)者準(zhǔn)確習(xí)得目的語(yǔ)的目的。

有了教師的注意和修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng),學(xué)習(xí)者才能注意到教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng),并注意到自己的言語(yǔ)產(chǎn)出與目的語(yǔ)的正確的語(yǔ)言形式之間所存在的差距,進(jìn)而做出修補(bǔ)反應(yīng)(uptake),即采取一定的修補(bǔ)策略實(shí)施修補(bǔ)。教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)實(shí)際上就是提升注意力的行為。

3.2留面子

會(huì)話修補(bǔ)的社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究?jī)r(jià)值在于通過(guò)對(duì)言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤的修補(bǔ),人們意欲維持面子需求,保持一致。如果話者被聽(tīng)者在很多別的聽(tīng)者面前直接指出語(yǔ)誤,話者的積極面子(positive face)就會(huì)受損(Tang 2011:94)。

為了保住學(xué)習(xí)者的積極面子,教師與其說(shuō)是直接更正學(xué)習(xí)者的言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤,倒不如給對(duì)方一個(gè)機(jī)會(huì)以便挽回面子。于是,各種修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧起到了留面子的作用,見(jiàn)例:

(14) S2: Another reason is because the girl is major in Ma-Math.

T: Math? Science? Yes, science. She is at science major.

S2: Ah, science.

T: Yeah, she is at science major. reason is because the girl is major in Ma-Math.

T: Math? Science? Yes, science. She is at science major.

S2: Ah, science.

T: Yeah, she is at science major.

上例中,學(xué)習(xí)者S2認(rèn)為該女孩的專業(yè)是數(shù)學(xué)。但教師認(rèn)為,不應(yīng)該是數(shù)學(xué)專業(yè),應(yīng)該是理科專業(yè)。這時(shí),教師沒(méi)有直截了當(dāng)?shù)亟o予否定,而是用問(wèn)題形式加升調(diào)發(fā)出監(jiān)測(cè)到語(yǔ)誤的信號(hào)。為了進(jìn)一步避免強(qiáng)加,教師用yes加以緩沖,然后啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)。在接下來(lái)的話輪中,學(xué)習(xí)者進(jìn)行了自我修補(bǔ),肯定了教師的糾錯(cuò)行為。在第四個(gè)話輪中,教師才最后加以確認(rèn)?？梢郧宄乜吹?教師在不斷給面子、留面子,避免傷害學(xué)習(xí)者的自尊。

3.3促進(jìn)語(yǔ)言習(xí)得

人們認(rèn)為含有修補(bǔ)的意義協(xié)商過(guò)程可以使語(yǔ)言的習(xí)得更快、更容易。學(xué)習(xí)者在學(xué)習(xí)如何運(yùn)用修補(bǔ)策略進(jìn)行有效的會(huì)話的同時(shí),也習(xí)得了句法結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)和詞匯知識(shí)。當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者參與會(huì)話,通過(guò)請(qǐng)求、澄清、修補(bǔ)等策略進(jìn)行意義協(xié)商來(lái)完成社會(huì)活動(dòng)中的各種行為時(shí),他才能習(xí)得語(yǔ)言規(guī)則性的成分。教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)能夠有效地幫助學(xué)習(xí)者習(xí)得目標(biāo)語(yǔ)知識(shí)。

上述例5中的學(xué)習(xí)者S5感到電影非常動(dòng)人,然而他在提取moving的時(shí)候有困難,以至于用了填充詞(ah)以及自我重復(fù)(it’s)。但經(jīng)過(guò)這些之后,他所提取的詞匯仍然是錯(cuò)詞move。這時(shí)教師就啟動(dòng)了修補(bǔ),直接給出了對(duì)詞moving。學(xué)習(xí)者重復(fù)了對(duì)詞,而且用er和ah加以確認(rèn)和肯定,從而習(xí)得了moving這一詞匯。

3.4幫助輸入與輸出

會(huì)話修補(bǔ)的目的是為了促進(jìn)輸入與輸出。因此,保輸入便是教師啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)的另一目的。通過(guò)修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng),使學(xué)習(xí)者有效地實(shí)現(xiàn)目的語(yǔ)的輸入,從而確保可理解性輸出。例如:

(15) S5: Ah, I think the ah er I think Jay in this movie plays very well. And he ex ex express his idea of er ah.

T: Of romance.

S5: Of romance. I think the ah er I think Jay in this movie plays very well. And he ex ex express his idea of er ah.

T: Of romance.

S5: Of romance.

本例的學(xué)習(xí)者S5在評(píng)論電影主人公時(shí),認(rèn)為主人公表達(dá)了某種思想,可是在提取該種思想的準(zhǔn)確詞匯時(shí)碰到了問(wèn)題,以致連續(xù)出現(xiàn)了兩個(gè)填充詞er和ah。這時(shí)候,教師進(jìn)行了提示并啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)。在下一話輪中,學(xué)習(xí)者領(lǐng)會(huì)了教師的意圖,用重復(fù)的方式做出了自我修補(bǔ)。

以上實(shí)踐得出,教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)具有提升注意力、留住面子、促進(jìn)習(xí)得、幫助輸入與輸出等作用。

4. 結(jié)語(yǔ)

我們認(rèn)為,在二語(yǔ)課堂互動(dòng)環(huán)境下,修補(bǔ)的啟動(dòng)者應(yīng)為教師或其他學(xué)習(xí)者。其修補(bǔ)的軌跡為三話輪模式即阻礙源話輪、修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)話輪和修補(bǔ)話輪;因此,修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)位在第二話輪。在修補(bǔ)過(guò)程中,教師會(huì)憑借各種修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧來(lái)啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ),以便幫助學(xué)習(xí)者提升注意力,實(shí)現(xiàn)可理解性輸入與輸出,從而習(xí)得語(yǔ)言。

從語(yǔ)料也不難看出,我國(guó)外語(yǔ)教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)技巧無(wú)論從形式上還是數(shù)量上尚欠不足,對(duì)啟動(dòng)策略的運(yùn)用意識(shí)也不夠強(qiáng)。

因此,在組織外語(yǔ)教學(xué)過(guò)程中,教師應(yīng)認(rèn)識(shí)到自我修補(bǔ)以及修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)對(duì)提高課堂教學(xué)質(zhì)量以及幫助學(xué)習(xí)者習(xí)得語(yǔ)言所起的作用,重視對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ)能力的開(kāi)發(fā)和培養(yǎng),給予他們足夠的機(jī)會(huì)通過(guò)形式協(xié)商來(lái)自我修補(bǔ)語(yǔ)言形式上的錯(cuò)誤。同時(shí),在啟動(dòng)修補(bǔ)時(shí),選擇合適的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)形式和啟動(dòng)位,掌握一定的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)策略,使學(xué)習(xí)者的自我修補(bǔ)得以實(shí)施,從而幫助學(xué)習(xí)者習(xí)得語(yǔ)言。

同時(shí),學(xué)生也應(yīng)正確理解會(huì)話自我修補(bǔ)在外語(yǔ)習(xí)得中所起的作用,自覺(jué)運(yùn)用各種修補(bǔ)策略來(lái)提高自身的交際能力,并對(duì)教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)以及各種技巧有充分的認(rèn)識(shí),提高修補(bǔ)反應(yīng)能力以及對(duì)言語(yǔ)錯(cuò)誤實(shí)施修補(bǔ)的能力。

教師的修補(bǔ)啟動(dòng)直接關(guān)系到學(xué)習(xí)者是否完成成功的修補(bǔ)。成功的修補(bǔ)有助于課堂互動(dòng),能有效地促進(jìn)學(xué)習(xí)者習(xí)得外語(yǔ)。本研究只是基于英語(yǔ)視聽(tīng)說(shuō)語(yǔ)料對(duì)該問(wèn)題做了一些探索,相信,隨著語(yǔ)料的不斷豐富和完善以及研究的深入,圍繞修補(bǔ)及其啟動(dòng)以及對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者習(xí)得外語(yǔ)的影響等研究課題,會(huì)有更多的發(fā)現(xiàn)。

附注

① 例1和例2來(lái)自Santa Barbara美國(guó)英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)(簡(jiǎn)稱SBC)。

參考文獻(xiàn)

Buckwalter, P. 2001. Repair sequences in Spanish L2 dyadic discourse: A descriptive study [J].TheModernLanguageJournal85(3): 380-97.

Foster, P. & A. S. Ohta. 2005. Negotiation for meaning and peer assistance in second language classrooms [J].AppliedLinguistics26: 402-30.

Cho, E. H. 2008.AnExaminationoftheUseofRepairStrategiesofElementaryEnglishasaSecondLanguage(ESL)StudentsbyClassTypesandGradeLevels[D]. Texas A & M University.

Comeau, L. & F. Genesee. 2001. Bilingual children’s repair strategies during dyadic communication [A]. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (eds.).TrendsinBilingualAcquisition[C]. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Hennoste, T. 2005. Repair-initiating particles and um-s in Estonian spontaneous speech [EB/OL]. www.isca-speech.org/archive_open/archive.../dis5_083.pdf.

Kormos, J. 2000. The timing of self-repair in second language speech production [J].StudiesinSecondLanguageAcquisition22(2): 145-67.

Liebscher, G. & J. Dailey-O’Cain. 2003. Conversational repair as a role-defining mechanism in classroom interaction [J].TheModernLanguageJournal87(3): 375-390.

Makinen, E. 2008. Corrections of non-native student errors in an EFL classroom, A Pro Gradu Thesis in English [EB/OL]. https:∥jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/.../URN_NBN_fi_jyu-200806095432.pdf.

McHoul, A. 1990. The organization of repair in classroom talk [J].LanguageinSociety19(3): 349-77.

Schegloff, E. A. 2007.SequenceOrganizationinInteraction:APrimerinConversationAnalysis(Volume 1) [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Seedhouse, P. 2004.TheInteractionalArchitectureoftheLanguageClassroom:AConversationAnalysisPerspective[M]. Malden: Blackwell.

Tang, C. H. 2011. Self-repair devices I classroom monologue discourse [J].Concentric:StudiesinLinguistics37(1): 93-120.

Terzi, C. 2010. Preferred initiation-repair mechanism in EFL classrooms [R].Procedia-SocialandBehavioralSciences,WorldConferenceonLearning,TeachingandAdministration9: 776-81.

Yasui, E. 2010. Repair and language proficiency: Differences of advanced and beginning language learners in an English-Japanese conversation group [EB/OL]. studentorgs.utexas.edu/.../Summer%202010/5_Eiko%20Yasui.

崔海迪.2011.口語(yǔ)課堂教師啟動(dòng)修正的個(gè)案研究——一項(xiàng)針對(duì)培訓(xùn)學(xué)校中方和外籍英語(yǔ)教師的對(duì)比研究[D].沈陽(yáng)師范大學(xué).

何安平.2003.基于語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的英語(yǔ)教師話語(yǔ)分析[J].現(xiàn)代外語(yǔ)(2):162-70.

楊曉健.2008.外語(yǔ)課堂中教師修正啟動(dòng)的個(gè)案研究——一項(xiàng)對(duì)本族語(yǔ)教師和非本族語(yǔ)教師個(gè)案研究[D].南京:南京師范大學(xué).

張敏.2002.從自然言語(yǔ)與教師話語(yǔ)的風(fēng)格差異談教師話語(yǔ)的效能[J].外語(yǔ)教學(xué)(4):41-44.

周學(xué)恒、鄧曉明.2012.國(guó)內(nèi)外語(yǔ)教師課堂話語(yǔ)研究綜述:成就與不足[J].吉林省教育學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)(3):111-13.

朱婭蓉.2010.教師啟動(dòng)的會(huì)話修正研究——基于中國(guó)研究生公共英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)課堂語(yǔ)料的實(shí)證研究[D].上海外國(guó)語(yǔ)大學(xué).

(責(zé)任編輯吳詩(shī)玉)

Abstracts of Major Papers in This Issue

Foreign Language Classroom Research: Retrospects and Prospects, by XU Jinfen, p. 1

From the nature and purpose of foreign language classroom research, this paper first retrospectively reviews the characteristics of foreign language classroom research, namely the method comparison research in the 1960s, the individualized teaching research in the 1970s, the individual learner factor research in the 1980s, and the classroom process research in the 1990s. It then discusses the research foci since the 21st century, such as the classroom interaction and focus-on-form teaching and introduces four main methods of foreign language classroom empirical research including the descriptive research, the experimental research, the ethnographic research, and the correlational research. Finally, it proposes prospects for the future foreign language classroom research from the macro and micro levels in order to provide a reference for researchers.

The Holistic Appraisal Construction in Multimodal History Textbooks, by SHI Chunxu & WANG Zhenhua, p. 8

Following Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory on verbal-visual semiotics and in reference to Martin and Rose’s (2007) model on text-image relationship, the paper proposes a theoretical framework on multimodal appraisal and explore the influence of text-image relationship on holistic appraisal construction in the case study of multimodal historical textbooks. Based on statistical analysis, it is found that the text-image relations make inter-modal links and connect them as a comprehensive whole. The proper text-image relations may create synchrony rather than the reverse between verbal appraisal and image appraisal. In the discourse of multimodal historical textbooks, it is shown that expansion outnumbers projection in holistic appraisal construction and multimodal appraisal under different types of text-image relationship is probabilistically related to certain historical genres during the instantiation of evaluation.

Interactions in Linguistic and Multimodal Texts: A Case Study ofPrideandPrejudice, by QU Tao, p. 14

Interactions in linguistic text and multimodal text have long been respectively studied in linguistic field. However, comparative studies on the two kinds of texts are few. With the systemic functional approach, this research has compared a novel chapter with its corresponding film part inPrideandPrejudice, from the aspects of interaction type, degree and means. It is found that interactions between represented participants are similar between the two texts, but there are big differences in interactions between interactive participants and also between represented and interactive participants. This research helps better understand interactions in the two kinds of texts, and also contributes to resemioticization studies in which different semiotic resources are used to realize the same meaning.

A Multimodal Stylistic Study on the Two Covers of Graham Rawle’sWoman’sWorld, by LEI Qian & ZHANG Delu, p. 20

The cover of a novel is itself a multimodal meaning integration of verbal mode, image, typography, layout and color, and it is also integrated with the meaning of the content of the novel. In the present study, two versions of the covers of modern British writer Graham Rawle’sWoman’sWorldare chosen as research objects, and on the basis of the multimodal stylistic framework of Zhang Delu (2012), a new approach to analyze multimodal covers is proposed by adding some new modes, such as typography, layout and color to it. By employing this approach, the multimodal stylistic features and the meaning realizations of the two covers, the inter-semiotic relations of the covers and the integration of the covers and the content of the novel are comparatively studied. The results show that the cover of the 2008 version can more appropriately convey the deep experiential meaning and interpersonal meaning of the novel to readers and fulfill its function.

On the Assessment Framework for Chinese College Students’ Multiliteracies in Foreign Languages, by LIU Rui & ZHANG Delu, p. 26

The assessment of learners is an important part of classroom teaching. On the basis of the research on multiliteracies assessment, the goal of fostering qualified Chinese foreign language personnel and the components of muliliteracies, this article proposes an assessment framework for Chinese college students’ multiliteracies in foreign languages. The assessment of multiliteracies in foreign languages can be done by designing tasks concerned, observing students’ performances and adopting multiple assessment methods in a particular context.

A Cognitive Pragmatic Approach to Referential Ambiguity in Advertisements: A Case Study of Car Ads, by SHEN Xingchen & CHEN Xinren, p. 33

This study adopts a pragma-cognitive approach to referential ambiguity as found in car advertisements. Drawing on Blending Theory (BT) and Relevance Theory (RT), we establish a pragma-cognitive analytical framework for utterance interpretation in communicative context. Within the framework, we depict the procedure of advertisement interpretation as follows: first, the audience of the advertisements construct two input spaces, namely “car” space and “person/car-owner” space, based on the ostensive stimulus (i.e. the language of the advertisements), the immediate context, and related cognitive models stored in long-term memory; then, they will map the content in the input spaces onto the blended space, namely “person-car” space; as a result, they finally acquire a set of weak implicatures and poetic effects intended by the advertisers to help to achieve their communicative goal, that is, to persuade the audience to buy a particular brand of car. We also find that car advertisers choose to emphasize different features depending on the car type, and the identity and need of the potential customers in order to achieve different poetic effects. The study indicates the explanatory power of the pragma-cognitive framework we build for the interpretation of utterances in context and supports the adequate operability and compatibility of integrating RT and BT.

Diachronic Changes of Discourse and Identity Construction: A Historical Sociopragmatic Perspective, by WANG Xueyu, p. 39

Historical socio-pragmatic scholars emphasize the following relation between discourse, interlocutors’ identities and historical socio-context: interlocutors’ identities are constructed discursively, and both identity construction and discursive strategies are constrained by historical socio-context and changes with the contextual development. Based on such a view, the present study attempts to conduct a diachronic analysis of advertisers’ identity construction from the 1980s to the 2000s, focusing on the diachronic changes of identity types and discursive strategies. Besides, the paper illustrates the context sensitivity of identity construction through the analysis of the influence of social cultures and values on identity construction.

Socio-psychological Mechanism Underlying Misleading Vague Language in Advertisements: A Critical Pragmatic Analysis, by QIAN Yonghong, p. 44

Previous studies of advertisements revealed the potentially misleading or deceptive effect of vague language used in advertisements, but failed to explore the socio-psychological mechanism behind the use of misleading or deceptive vague discourse. In view of this research gap, the present study, adopting the methods of audience survey and interview, aims to investigate the socio-psychological factors adapted to by advertisers in the use of misleading vague discourse within the framework of critical pragmatics. The analysis shows that TV shopping advertisers tend to focus on prospective customers’ psychological tendencies (such as blind belief in high technology and authority, pursuit of cheapness and novelty, crowd mentality, etc.) and adapt negatively to those mentalities in the use of vague discourses so as to mislead the customers into buying their products. This study could provide some reference for the government departments concerned in their supervision and management of the TV advertising programs.

Memetic Strategies in Micro-movie Advertisements, by WU Jue & YAO Yayan, p. 49

The replication of a meme goes through such stages as assimilation, retention, expression and transmission. Some transmission strategies can help build a powerful meme. The replication and transmission of memes are also reflected in advertising. One of the factors that contribute to the success of the newly-emerged micro-movie advertisements, to some extent, is the use and transmission of powerful memes. In the micro-movie advertisements named “Sour, Sweet, Bitter and Spicy”, which are made to promote the sugar-free chewing gum of Extra?, there are three major strategies of transmitting the powerful memes, namely the strategy of repetition, the strategy of emotional adaptation, and the strategy of cognitive dissonance. The use of these strategies helps people remember deeply some powerful memes in these micro-movie advertisements.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge for EFL Public Speaking, by FENG Ruimin, p. 52

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has become a widely accepted academic construct. This study investigates the PCK of five EFL (English as a Foreign Language) public speaking teachers. Case study is used as the research method, and the data collection involves class observation, interviews, and documents. A PCK framework grounded in the data is developed for EFL public speaking teachers, which is composed of five core knowledge categories, namely, knowledge of curriculum, language, instruction, students and assessment. There are sets of discrete knowledge within each core knowledge category, which embodies the topic specificity of situated PCK.

ELF: A New Research Topic in International Applied Linguistics, by MA Yan & LI Lisheng, p. 58

With the growing globalization and regional cooperation, English has seen a widespread use in all sorts of settings and has become the common contact language among speakers of different linguacultural backgrounds. This has consequently both challenged and promoted English language teaching. Over the past 15 years or so English as a lingua franca (ELF) has become a popular and booming field that has attracted a great deal of attention and practices within English language education and applied linguistics. After a brief survey of the development of ELF, the current paper defines ELF and then introduces the major findings of research into the nature of ELF in terms of its domains and linguistic levels. The paper ends with some implications of ELF for English language teaching and learning in China.

An Insight into Repair Initiation in L2 Teacher Discourse, by YAO Jianpeng, p. 70

Repair initiation is an important phase in the speech self-repair mechanism in which the initiator sends the repair signal by linguistic and non-linguistic means to the interlocutor for him to repair the speech errors detected. The present paper discusses the teacher repair initiation in the teacher discourse in the L2 teacher-student interactive classroom context in the light of repair initiator, placement and technique and studies the features and the effects of the Chinese English teachers’ repair initiation in the like context based on the data collected.