朱 琳(綜述) 向 平(審校)
(司法部司法鑒定科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所法醫(yī)毒物化學(xué)研究室-上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室 上海 200063)
生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析研究進(jìn)展
朱 琳(綜述) 向 平△(審校)
(司法部司法鑒定科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所法醫(yī)毒物化學(xué)研究室-上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室 上海 200063)
在我國,抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒頻繁發(fā)生,易被誤診。檢測生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑對(duì)臨床診斷、治療和法醫(yī)學(xué)調(diào)查有重要意義。本文綜述了近年文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道的生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的分析方法,著重比較各種生物樣品選擇、樣品前處理、分離檢測技術(shù),并結(jié)合本課題組的應(yīng)用案例給出血液、頭發(fā)分析的結(jié)果參考。血液適用于抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析,其主要前處理方法有液-液提取、蛋白質(zhì)沉淀等。頭發(fā)可作為血液樣品的重要補(bǔ)充,用于攝藥歷史的法醫(yī)學(xué)調(diào)查。液相色譜-質(zhì)譜(liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry,LC-MS)檢測法兼顧靈敏度與選擇性,是目前最常用的分析生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的技術(shù)。
抗凝血; 殺鼠劑; 中毒; 生物樣品; 分析方法
隨著急性劇毒殺鼠劑(如:毒鼠強(qiáng))的禁用,抗凝血類殺鼠劑被廣泛使用。人類抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒在世界范圍內(nèi)屢有報(bào)道,最多見的攝入原因包括誤食[1-3]、自行服毒[4]、甚至藥物濫用者為達(dá)到更長欣快感而服用[2,5-6]。在美國,自2009—2013年發(fā)生抗凝血類殺鼠劑的接觸報(bào)告共49702例[7-11]??鼓悮⑹髣?duì)人以外的非目標(biāo)動(dòng)物(家畜、寵物及野生動(dòng)物哺乳動(dòng)物、猛禽等)具有中毒和二次中毒威脅[12-16],在動(dòng)物保護(hù)領(lǐng)域引起了重視。
在中國,抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒頻繁發(fā)生[17-23],甚至可能是公共安全事件,如2009年5月浙江樂清176人誤食溴敵隆污染的炒飯中毒[24],2010—2011年福建某鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)陸續(xù)出現(xiàn)不明原因的疑似大隆投毒[25]等。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑競爭性抑制肝臟中維生素K的轉(zhuǎn)化,致凝血功能受損,其潛伏期為1~11天,中毒癥狀易與其他出血疾病混淆;加上服毒者隱瞞,或自認(rèn)與癥狀無關(guān)而未提及服毒史,易導(dǎo)致誤診[20-21,26]。目前臨床實(shí)踐中多通過凝血參數(shù)提示診斷,但無法確診。而檢測生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑,能直接為診斷和治療[2]提供依據(jù),也有助法醫(yī)學(xué)專家調(diào)查案情[17]。
生物樣品中的抗凝血類殺鼠劑含量多為ng/g級(jí)別,而薄層色譜[27]、液相色譜[28]、氣相色譜[15]、氣相色譜-質(zhì)譜[29]檢測法的靈敏度和專屬性有限[30],曾是分析工作難點(diǎn)。近年來隨著液相色譜-質(zhì)譜檢測技術(shù)的成熟,生物樣品中的抗凝血類殺鼠劑檢測方法得以進(jìn)一步發(fā)展。
已有研究者綜述了抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析研究進(jìn)展[17,30-32],但尚缺對(duì)生物樣品分析的重點(diǎn)討論[32]。本文將簡介抗凝血類殺鼠劑,綜述近年來報(bào)道的分析方法,討論生物樣品選擇、前處理、分析檢測方法,并結(jié)合本實(shí)驗(yàn)室的案例應(yīng)用,討論人血液和頭發(fā)的相關(guān)分析結(jié)果,供臨床及法醫(yī)毒物工作者參考。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑簡介第1代抗凝血類殺鼠劑主要是華法林(warfarin,又名殺鼠靈)和殺鼠醚(coumatetralyl)。隨著耐藥鼠種群產(chǎn)生,開發(fā)出藥效更強(qiáng)、作用更持久的第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑(second generation anticoagulant rodenticides,SGARs),又被稱為“超級(jí)華法林(superwarfarins)”、“長效殺鼠劑(long-acting rodenticides)”[1],包括4-羥基香豆素類的溴敵?。╞romadiolone,又名“樂萬通”)、大?。╞rodifacoum,又名“溴鼠靈”、“溴鼠隆”)、殺它仗(flocoumafen)等,以及茚滿二酮類的敵鼠(diphacinone)、氯鼠(chlorophacinone)、殺鼠酮(valone)等。目前中國農(nóng)業(yè)部登記的抗凝血類殺鼠劑有溴敵隆、大隆、敵鼠鈉鹽、氟鼠靈、殺鼠靈、殺鼠醚[33]。文獻(xiàn)[34]及本課題組的案例顯示,我國最常引起中毒的抗凝血類殺鼠劑是溴敵隆與大隆。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑吸收途徑包括口服、呼吸道[2,5-6]、皮膚和黏膜[35-41]吸收。抗凝血類殺鼠劑常在肝臟蓄積[42-43]。大鼠肝臟與血清中大隆濃度比值超過20[44]。華法林主要經(jīng)肝臟的細(xì)胞色素P450羥基化代謝后,從尿液排泄。而第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑溴敵隆[45]、大隆[44]和殺它仗[43]主要以原形從糞便排泄。
表1列舉了一些中毒報(bào)道的血藥濃度和消除半衰期。第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑的生物半衰期可長至幾天至幾十天,大多顯示兩種消除時(shí)相的動(dòng)力學(xué)[42,46]。亦有研究顯示大隆為零級(jí)消除(取樣時(shí)間至攝入后40天),但不排除到了低濃度時(shí)轉(zhuǎn)為一級(jí)消除[47]。
目前治療包括輸注維生素K、凝血酶原復(fù)合物,重癥時(shí)給予新鮮冷凍血漿或血液灌流等[2,48]。鑒于第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑消除緩慢,且半衰期個(gè)體差異大(表1),在治療過程中應(yīng)測定患者血液中化合物濃度,設(shè)計(jì)給藥方案,有利于合理治療[46-47,49]。根據(jù)Lo等[46]的一個(gè)中毒案例,血液溴敵隆濃度降至10 ng/m L后,患者凝血功能恢復(fù)正常。而對(duì)于大隆,有研究者認(rèn)為治療終點(diǎn)可定在血清大隆濃度降至10 ng/m L[47,50]。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析使用的生物樣品及前處理方法
血液 血液能直接反應(yīng)循環(huán)系統(tǒng)中毒物濃度??鼓悮⑹髣┑乃苄云毡檩^差,易溶于有機(jī)溶劑。由于抗凝血類殺鼠劑呈弱酸性,液-液提?。╨iquid-liquid extraction,LLE)時(shí)可以考慮將水相調(diào)整為弱酸性[57]。
處理血漿可丙酮提取后乙醚沉淀蛋白質(zhì)[58]或直接乙腈沉淀蛋白質(zhì)[59]。有方法[45,60]使用了Toxi-B管(一種液-液提取裝置,有機(jī)相包括30%~40%的二氯甲烷,10%~20%的庚烷,30%~40%的氯化鋅)。
全血前處理常采用乙酸乙酯LLE,使用溶劑量
為2~8 m L[28,56,61-62]。Guan等[28]對(duì)比了乙酸乙酯、氯仿、乙醚和C18小柱對(duì)全血中5種抗凝血類殺鼠劑的回收率,乙酸乙酯的回收率最高。
表1 一些人類抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒者的血液測量結(jié)果和半衰期Tab 1 Some anticoagulant rodenticide levels in human poisoning cases and the corresponding half-lives
血清的處理通常包括沉淀蛋白質(zhì)和乙酸乙酯提取兩個(gè)步驟[57]。
肝臟 第2代凝血類殺鼠劑在肝臟蓄積,因此肝臟常用于相關(guān)毒物動(dòng)力學(xué)研究。最常用固相萃取法(solid phase extraction,SPE),且預(yù)先用乙腈[63]、丙酮[64]、或丙酮與二氯甲烷的混合物等[65]液-液提取。優(yōu)點(diǎn)是樣品凈化充分,缺點(diǎn)是耗時(shí)較長。
Clelland[66]使用一次性吸管萃?。╠isposable pipette extraction,DPX)處理了肝臟樣品,其原理同固相萃取,但無需活化和抽真空洗脫步驟,時(shí)間短;且每個(gè)樣品使用的有機(jī)溶劑不超過1 m L,較傳統(tǒng)固相萃取減少。
Vudathala等[67]開發(fā)了一個(gè)Qu ECh ERS (Quick、Easy、Cheap、Effective、Rugged、Safe,基于分散固相萃取原理)方法。與傳統(tǒng)SPE對(duì)比,此方法便捷且節(jié)省溶劑,且可達(dá)到滿意效果。
Hernández等[68]分析普通田鼠的肝臟、腸、肉時(shí),將凍干的樣品均一化后用甲醇(6 m L)提取。
毛發(fā) 抗凝血類殺鼠劑由于攝入隱蔽等原因,暴露來源往往難以明確[1],而頭發(fā)檢測時(shí)限長,根據(jù)頭發(fā)生長速度約1 cm/月,通過分段分析,可大致推測某些外源化合物的攝入歷史,并已在法醫(yī)學(xué)等領(lǐng)域得以應(yīng)用[10-11],頭發(fā)還具有采樣無侵犯性、易保存等優(yōu)點(diǎn)。
目前報(bào)道的頭發(fā)分析方法中,R?hrich等[69]將頭發(fā)用甲醇超聲提取(50℃,4 h),再用氯仿、丙酮提取,但未在實(shí)際應(yīng)用中檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑。本文作者等[70]將頭發(fā)冷凍研磨,加p H 6.8磷酸緩沖液超聲后乙酸乙酯液-液提取,此法應(yīng)用于實(shí)際中毒者的頭發(fā)分段分析,檢出了溴敵隆或大隆。
其他生物樣品 死亡案件的法醫(yī)毒物分析中,除了血液、肝、腎等,有報(bào)道膽汁檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑[71],肝臟的甲醛保存液也可檢出[71]。
在野生動(dòng)物的抗凝血類殺鼠劑暴露監(jiān)測中,動(dòng)物尸體檢查常用肝臟[58]。采樣無侵犯性的生物樣品則有糞便[45]以及猛禽食團(tuán)[14]。毛發(fā)分析或?qū)⒔o野生動(dòng)物的保護(hù)性監(jiān)測提供了新選擇[70]。
雖然已建立以尿液為樣品的方法[59,72-73],但極少從尿液檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑的報(bào)道。如某女,因出血入院20天后,血液中檢出大?。?22 ng/m L),尿液無檢出[62]。有報(bào)道一危重患者的尿液(血尿)中檢出溴敵隆為73 ng/m L,同時(shí)其血液中溴敵隆為1 150 ng/m L[48],很可能源于尿液混雜的血液。如前述,溴敵隆、大隆、殺它仗主要隨糞便排出,尿液排泄很少[43-45];即使對(duì)通過經(jīng)尿液排出的化合物,如敵鼠,檢測時(shí)距攝入已久,其排泄速率已變慢[74],因此尿液不是抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析的理想樣品。
分析方法
液相色譜-紫外檢測和液相色譜-熒光檢測法
抗凝血類殺鼠劑不易揮發(fā),應(yīng)用氣相色譜法時(shí)需衍生化,且靈敏度有限[30],如Sato等[29]開發(fā)的氣相色譜-質(zhì)譜(GC-MS)法,檢測限為10~30 ng/m L。而液相色譜法不需要衍生化步驟。高效液相色譜的分離,多為以C18為固定相的反向色譜。就靈敏度而言,熒光檢測器(FLD)檢測限可達(dá)小于10 ng/m L[57,65,75],優(yōu)于紫外(UV)通常在20~75 ng/m L范圍的檢測限[28,76-77]。
液相色譜-質(zhì)譜檢測和液相色譜-串聯(lián)質(zhì)譜檢測法 相較紫外和熒光檢測器,質(zhì)譜有極佳的靈敏度和選擇性。Hernández等[68]測量4種抗凝血類殺鼠劑,用UV或FLD,檢出限是9~89 ng/g,而用質(zhì)譜檢出限為0.6~1.5 ng/g。液相色譜-質(zhì)譜(LC-MS)是近年新開發(fā)方法中的主流,其主要缺點(diǎn)是價(jià)格較高。
電噴霧電離(electrospray ionization,ESI)是目前檢測生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑最常用的離子源[45,58,61-62,66,68,70,78]。金米聰?shù)龋?9]用大氣壓化學(xué)電離(atmospheric pressure chemical ionization,APCI)和ESI分析殺鼠醚,APCI正模式響應(yīng)最好。R?hrich等[69]考察了ESI、APCI、大氣壓光電離(atmospheric pressure photoionization,APPI)3種離子源分析抗凝血類物質(zhì),在APCI、ESI負(fù)模式下鼠得克和大隆有最好響應(yīng),溴敵隆則只在此兩種模式下有響應(yīng)。蔡欣欣等[59]考察了不同離子源,敵鼠、氯鼠只在ESI負(fù)模式離子化。因此,ESI是同時(shí)檢測抗凝血類殺鼠劑的合適之選。
基質(zhì)效應(yīng)指色譜分離時(shí)共同流出的物質(zhì)使待測物的離子化效率降低或增高,是LC-MS方法必須考察的問題。已報(bào)道的抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析方法中,待測物離子化皆受抑制[62,68-70,78,80],抑制率為6.5%[78]~75%[70]。為了減輕基質(zhì)效應(yīng),可調(diào)整色譜條件或優(yōu)化樣品處理,如Clelland為減輕脂肪酸引起的基質(zhì)效應(yīng),在DPX后加入了堿性鋁[66]。
目前LC-MS和LC-MS/MS分析抗凝血類殺鼠劑的方法最常采用四極桿質(zhì)譜檢測器,其中三重四級(jí)桿的多反應(yīng)監(jiān)測(MRM)模式檢測限可達(dá)到0.1 ng/m L[62]。目前報(bào)道的兩個(gè)測量頭發(fā)中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的LC-MS/MS方法均為使用此檢測法[69-70]。Fourel等[60]用離子阱質(zhì)譜分析13種抗凝血類物質(zhì),檢出限為5~25 ng/m L。Schaff等[80]用軌道阱高分辨質(zhì)譜分析血液中的抗凝血類殺鼠劑,同時(shí)用全掃描質(zhì)譜和串聯(lián)質(zhì)譜采集數(shù)據(jù),該方法檢測限為2~10 ng/m L。
其他分析方法 除高效液相色譜,亦有使用離子色譜法的分析[53,78,81],如Chen等[78]使用離子色譜-離子阱質(zhì)譜分析四種茚滿二酮類殺鼠劑,定量下限為0.2~0.5 ng/m L。
Krizkova等[82]用液相色譜-循環(huán)伏安法測定田鼠肝臟的溴敵隆含量,該電化學(xué)檢測器能達(dá)到5 ng/m L的檢測限。Beklova等[83]使用碳糊電極,以微分脈沖伏安法(differential pulse voltammetry,DPV)測定了動(dòng)物組織中的溴敵隆,檢出限為0.5 ng/m L。然而,這兩種電化學(xué)分析方法選擇性較低,只適合單一目標(biāo)物的分析[82]。
應(yīng)用案例關(guān)于中國人群中接受治療的抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒者體內(nèi)含量的報(bào)道尚不多。作者所在的研究團(tuán)隊(duì)近年檢測了多例疑似抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒患者的血液[62]和頭發(fā)[70]。現(xiàn)列舉部分案例如下。
血液檢測 應(yīng)用案例1:男,39歲,與妻子爭執(zhí)后服下家中鼠藥(數(shù)量不明),當(dāng)天被送診,無明顯癥狀。血液中含溴敵隆12.1 ng/m L。
案例2:男,29歲,因不明原因的出血就診,纖維蛋白原含量(Fg)為4.7 g/L(正常值1.8~3.5 g/L),活化部分凝血酶時(shí)間(APPT)為123 s(正常值27~41 s),凝血酶原時(shí)間60 s(正常值0~16 s)。2天后血樣送實(shí)驗(yàn)室檢測,含溴敵隆89.5 ng/m L。
案例3:男,47歲,口腔出血、胃十二指腸出血、血尿、腰痛一年半??诜S生素K使其凝血指標(biāo)回復(fù)正常,數(shù)月后出血復(fù)發(fā)。血樣送本實(shí)驗(yàn)室檢測,含溴敵隆10.8 ng/m L。
頭發(fā)檢測 血液檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑的5例患者(全血中溴敵隆或大隆含量為1.1~422 ng/m L)處,征得同意后采集頭發(fā),分段分析。出現(xiàn)癥狀后9 ~25天采集頭發(fā)的患者,其近發(fā)根1 cm或0.5 cm的頭發(fā)檢出,含量為檢出限(溴敵隆10 pg/mg,大隆25 pg/mg)至78 pg/mg,而遠(yuǎn)端頭發(fā)無檢出。推測攝入時(shí)間,與患者描述的癥狀出現(xiàn)時(shí)間大致相符。
1例55歲女性患者的頭發(fā)采集于出現(xiàn)癥狀6個(gè)月后,近頭皮0~8 cm的發(fā)段均可檢出大隆,各段含量從檢出限到54 pg/mg,難以發(fā)現(xiàn)明顯分布規(guī)律。漫長的半衰期使抗凝血類殺鼠劑在攝入后很長時(shí)間都能從血液循環(huán)進(jìn)入頭發(fā),目前尚難從頭發(fā)分析判斷單次或重復(fù)攝藥。
結(jié)語生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的分析對(duì)中毒的診斷、治療以及法醫(yī)調(diào)查很重要。已建立的生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的分析方法中,液相-質(zhì)譜兼顧選擇性和靈敏度,是目前最常用的分析技術(shù)。進(jìn)一步研究方向可能有:(1)步驟更少、更環(huán)境友好型的前處理及自動(dòng)化,如針對(duì)復(fù)雜樣品的QuEChERS方法等;(2)用量更少、更易采集和保存的樣品種類,如唾液、干血點(diǎn)(dry blood spot)等;(3)考察頭發(fā)中的各段含量分布及其隨時(shí)間的變化規(guī)律,美發(fā)處理等因素對(duì)其影響,頭發(fā)能否判斷反復(fù)或單次攝入等問題。
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Review of analysis on anticoagulant rodenticides in biological specimens
ZHU Lin,XIANG Ping△
(Department of Forensic Toxicology,Institute of Forensic Science,Ministry of Justice-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine,Shanghai 200063,China)
In China,poisoning of anticoagulant rodenticides is common,and the diagnosis is difficult. Analysis of anticoagulant rodenticides in biological samples is very important to clinical diagnosis,treatment,and forensic investigation.The present article reviews the recently reported analytical methods for anticoagulant rodenticides in biological specimens,focusing on the choice of biological specimen,sample preparation,separation and detection technologies,along with the application to poisoning cases using blood or scalp hair by the the authors′study group.The conclusions:blood is appropriate for analysis of anticoagulant rodenticides,and the sample preparation mainly includes liquidliquid extraction or protein precipitation.Hair could serve as implementation to blood in the forensic investigation of exposure history.To date,liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry(LC-MS)is the commonest technology for analyzing anticoagulant rodenticides in biological specimens for its sensitivity and selectivity.
anticoagulants; rodenticides; poisoning; biological specimen; analytical methods
R 595
B
10.3969/j.issn.1672-8467.2015.05.018
2015-03-10;編輯:張秀峰)
中央級(jí)公益性科研院所基本科研業(yè)務(wù)費(fèi)專項(xiàng)資金項(xiàng)目(2013G-9);上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室資助項(xiàng)目(14DZ2270800)
△Corresponding author E-mail:xiangping2630@163.com
*This work was supported by the Central Public-Interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund(2013G-9)and the Research Fund of Shanghai Key Forensic Medicine Laboratory(14DZ2270800).