青年創(chuàng)業(yè)和就業(yè)

This article attempts to provide a brief mapping of the state of youth employment and entrepreneurship across the world， identifying major trends and challenges facing young people as well as successful programmes and finally gaps in programming that could be addressed.

本文將嘗試概述全球青年就業(yè)和創(chuàng)業(yè)的局勢，明確青年面對的主要趨勢和挑戰(zhàn)，介紹成功的項目，并分析項目制定中存在的問題以及解決方案。

Background

背景

Youth unemployment has been on the increase worldwide augmented by the global economic crises that erased many of the gains made in previous years. Improved education levels are no longer a guarantee against unemployment， a trend particularly evident in the Middle East and North Africa （MENA） where the demand side of the labour market is poor， especially so for youth . In the Asia-Pacific region according to the World Bank the young account for almost half of the regions unemployed， while Africa the youngest continent in the world， despite its impressive and consistent annual growth rates cannot also provide enough employment opportunities.

青年失業(yè)在全世界范圍內與日俱增，且這一趨勢隨著全球經濟危機的爆發(fā)日漸加深。中東和北非國家的失業(yè)現象表明，勞動力市場針對青年的需求十分薄弱，這有效證明高質量、高水平的教育已不再是對抗失業(yè)的絕對保證。世界銀行的研究顯示，在亞太地區(qū)，年輕人將近占總失業(yè)人數的一半。盡管非洲是世界上最年輕的大洲，且其經濟增長率每年以驚人的速度持續(xù)攀長，仍舊無法提供充足的就業(yè)機會。

Unemployment Trends

失業(yè)趨勢

According to the ILO Global Employment Trends Youth 2013 Report， the ILO identified several trends in youth unemployment including：

· The Global Economic Crisis has substantially increased youth unemployment reversing previous trends.

· Youth unemployment has increased faster than adult unemployment possibly because youth are the most vulnerable to economic shocks.

· Longer recovery for youth than adults in the labour market.

根據國際勞工組織2013全球就業(yè)趨勢青年報告，青年失業(yè)呈現以下態(tài)勢：

·全球經濟危機使青年失業(yè)持續(xù)加劇，呈現與之前相反的態(tài)勢。

·青年失業(yè)的增速比成年人失業(yè)增長更快，可能由于青年是最易受經濟危機沖擊的群體。

·在勞動力市場中，青年需要比成年人更長時間的恢復期。

Skills mismatch， lack of quality employment， a lack of long term creative and wide ranging polices are also cited as reasons for continued and increasing youth unemployment.

Unemployment also continued to worsen in the developed world in relative and absolute terms and in Europe young males are affected more than young women.

In low income developing countries youth suffer from weak demand for their labour and low rates of job creation coupled with little if any social security services. High employment to population ratios of youth in the poorest region reflect that they must work however working does not mean having a decent job. Growing frustration over unemployment has pushed large cohorts of discouraged youth to drop out of the labour market altogether.

技能的不匹配、優(yōu)質就業(yè)機會的缺乏和可長期廣泛應用的創(chuàng)新政策的缺失，也是青年失業(yè)持續(xù)增長的原因。

失業(yè)現象在發(fā)達國家也日漸加劇，無論是在增幅還是增量方面。在歐洲，男性青年受影響的情況比女性青年更加嚴重。

在低收入的發(fā)展中國家，青年遭受就業(yè)市場需求低、崗位新增量低和社會服務幾近缺失的影響。在最貧困的地區(qū)，相較人口總量偏高的就業(yè)率顯示青年人必須工作，但工作不意味著他們擁有體面的職業(yè)。失業(yè)帶來的挫折使大批量的年輕人退出勞動力市場。

In Europe， unemployment has worsened in many states that face the Global Economic crisis for example in Spain， Ireland and Greece the rate almost doubled reversing gains made in the early 2000’s. This will lead to lower expectations and diminishing returns and incentives for undertaking education especially at a higher level.

From a Global perspective then across all regions economies are simply unable to absorb large numbers of youth who enter the labour market. Temporary unemployment while gaining work experience or education causes reliance on dependency structures such as government assistance and family which are not robust enough in many developing nations. Employers are also unwilling to invest in youth to develop their skills and as a result of their inexperience they are often the first to be let go. Where the youth are educated particularly in the developing world their education or skill sets do not match the market needs.

However， youth can be the drivers of change if they are empowered with relevant skills and resources. The paradox of youth unemployment is that ineffective absorption rates tend to push well educated youth overseas thus often creating a brain drain and depriving communities of the very talent needed for economic advancement.

在歐洲，全球經濟危機使許多國家失業(yè)情況加重。例如西班牙、愛爾蘭和希臘，其失業(yè)率幾乎是其19世紀早期所創(chuàng)造的就業(yè)率的兩倍。這會導致青年降低期望，減少接受高等教育的動力。

從全球視角來說，各地區(qū)的經濟都不足以吸收大量進入勞動力市場的青年人。臨時失業(yè)使人們更依靠依賴性的關系結構，如政府和家庭資助，來獲得工作或教育經歷，這在多數發(fā)展中國家不足以形成穩(wěn)固的就業(yè)平臺。雇主們也不愿意投資對青年進行技術培訓，且青年缺乏經驗，通常是首先被淘汰的群體。當青年獲得了教育機會，尤其是在發(fā)展中國家，他們所學習的技能并不能匹配市場需求。

然而，如果青年被賦予相應的技能和資源，他們可以成為改變的驅動者。但矛盾的是，青年失業(yè)將受過高等教育的年輕人推向海外，尋求與其腦力相適應的工作，這就剝奪了其所在社區(qū)利用高等人才發(fā)展經濟的機會。

The Informal Economy

非正規(guī)經濟

In many developing countries the informal sector accounts for between 35% and 50% of the economy and serves as a seedbed for entrepreneurship by necessity as a means of subsistence. The informal sector while enjoying a lack of taxation does suffer from An absenceof the formal protections and opportunities granted to formal businesses including credit. Programatic approaches then should work on the transition to the formal sector particularly through the lowering of barriers. The acquisition of formality allows new opportunities for the poor but must be accompanied by efforts at improving the conditions for entrepreneurs across the board.

很多發(fā)展中國家非正規(guī)部門經濟占全國經濟的35%到50%，并且作為謀生的必要方式成為創(chuàng)業(yè)者的溫床。非正規(guī)經濟在享受無稅收煩擾的同時，卻面對著缺乏正規(guī)保護，缺少信貸等正規(guī)經濟機遇的問題。因此比較切實的方法應該是通過降低門檻使其過渡到正規(guī)部門。獲取正規(guī)地位能夠給窮人帶來新的機會，但是必須同時全面提高創(chuàng)業(yè)者的境況。

Entrepreneurship and Youth

創(chuàng)業(yè)與青年

Entrepreneurs are viewed as innovators and risk takers and need to be in possession of certain features including a strong internal locus of control and risk taking propensity. However， because many youth take up entrepreneurship unwillingly simply as a means of subsistence they may not possess these qualities. Opportunity driven entrepreneurs as opposed to necessity driven ones pursue a market opportunity despite having other chances to earn a living. Young entrepreneurs also need a level of entrepreneurship readiness which should be taken into consideration by policy makers. However， these are not a homogenous group and policy makers should use a common yet differentiated approach to adapt to local contexts.

創(chuàng)業(yè)者一般被視為創(chuàng)新者，勇于承擔風險者，并且具備強大的內控力和承擔風險的性格等特質。但是由于很多青年選擇創(chuàng)業(yè)僅僅是糊口需要，并非自身喜歡創(chuàng)業(yè)，所以很可能不具備這些特質。然而那些機會驅動的創(chuàng)業(yè)者與僅僅為了糊口的青年不同，他們盡管面對其他謀生機會，仍舊選擇追求市場機遇。青年創(chuàng)業(yè)者也應該對創(chuàng)業(yè)做好一定的準備，這是決策者應該考慮的。然而，他們并非是完全同質的群體，決策者應采用一個統一但又針對不同地域有所區(qū)別的方法。

Entrepreneurs also play a critical role in the creation of employment opportunities. In this regard the International Labour Organisation， ILO carries out significant technical and promotional activities to assist governments， employers and workers organisations in creating decent and better jobs in countries around the world. It must be remembered that enterprise is at the heart of job creation and a means to fill the supply side gap. In the last decade the majority of new job opportunities have been created in the informal rather than the formal sector. However， informal sector workers are often exploited， poorly paid and lack social protection.

創(chuàng)業(yè)者對創(chuàng)造就業(yè)機會也有重要作用。國際勞工組織在這方面采取了重要的技術推動舉措，協助政府、雇主和員工在世界各地創(chuàng)造體面的、更好的工作。必須明確企業(yè)是創(chuàng)造就業(yè)的核心，也是填補供應方空缺的關鍵途徑。在過去十年，非正規(guī)部門創(chuàng)造了絕大多數的新崗位。然而，非正規(guī)部門的員工經常遭受剝削，薪資微薄，并且缺少社會保護。

The Private Sector and the Social Entrepreneur

私營部門和社會創(chuàng)業(yè)者

Corporate Social Responsibility （CSR） and Social Entrepreneurship are key ways in which the private sector can interact with youth empowerment and should be considered in any policy measures to tackle youth unemployment.

CSR can act as a valuable adjunct to public policies to assist youth. As entrepreneurship rises as a source of work for young people interaction with the private sector becomes critical.

For example in India， Nokia working in conjunction with Oxfam India launched a Youth focussed fellowship programme which encourages sustainable consumption through Art-Design and media based youth projects developed by the selected “fellows”. These participants build innovate social action projects conducted by Youth Led organisations.

企業(yè)社會責任和社會創(chuàng)業(yè)者是私營部門與青年賦權協作的重要方式，任何政策制定中都應考慮這一點，以解決青年失業(yè)問題。

企業(yè)社會責任作為公共政策的重要補充，能夠幫助到青年。隨著創(chuàng)業(yè)成為青年人的工作來源，與私營部門的協作變得十分重要。

比如在印度，諾基亞與樂施會印度分會共同啟動了關注青年的獎學金項目，鼓勵由優(yōu)秀的“研究員”所開發(fā)的藝術設計和以傳媒為主的青年項目的可持續(xù)性發(fā)展。這些參加者完成了創(chuàng)新社會行動項目，這些項目是由青年領導組織執(zhí)行的。

The concept of social entrepreneurship has risen to prominence within the past two decades and can be defined as someone who plays the role of a change agent but whose end goal unlike the entrepreneur is not just profit but they also seek to create and sustain social values and has a sense of accountability to the constituencies they operate in.

For example the YES Network is a social enterprise which nurtures visionary change makers helping them to become social entrepreneurs who innovate and co create positive changes in society. In addition to training programs YES also acts as an incubator for early stage social enterprise start-ups.

Social enterprise SELCO based in India for example designs solar energy products customized for households and small businesses located in off-grid rural areas. These units， priced from US$ 160-300， deliver better lighting， additional income for small businesses， and create jobs for young entrepreneurs engaged in installations and maintenance. To date， SELCO has provided customized solar energy solutions and affordable long-term financing to over 600，000 people and small businesses in rural areas in India. According to SELCO’s founder Dr. Hande， “Social entrepreneurs cannot develop a real solution just using a business plan and doing some rural tourism” ， “Nothing replaces the rigour of being out in the field and actually implementing and refining a solution in partnership with the poor.” He also points out the importance of Investing in personal relationships. Hande explains： “I keep telling young social entrepreneurs to develop friendships. I became friends with local bank managers and their assistants. （http：//reports.weforum.org/social-innovation-2013/view/selco/）

社會創(chuàng)業(yè)的概念在最近二十年漸漸被人關注，雖然承擔著社會變革者的角色，其最終目標仍不同于一般創(chuàng)業(yè)者，它不僅僅為了追求利潤，也尋求創(chuàng)造和弘揚社會價值，并且對于其所在的社區(qū)有一種責任感。

比如，YES網就是一家社會企業(yè)，它培養(yǎng)富有遠見的變革者，幫助他們成為社會創(chuàng)業(yè)者，使其成為能夠在社會中進行創(chuàng)新，并帶動積極的變革。除了提供培訓項目，YES也是早期社會創(chuàng)業(yè)者的孵化器。

印度的社會企業(yè)SELCO為沒有電網的偏遠鄉(xiāng)村中的家庭和個體商戶提供量身制作的太陽能產品。這些定價從160到300美元不等的產品能夠為個體商戶提供更好的照明，更多的收入，并且為從事安裝維修的青年創(chuàng)業(yè)者創(chuàng)造就業(yè)崗位。迄今為止，SELCO已經為印度60多萬人和個體商戶提供了量身制作的太陽能解決方案和償還得起的長期資金支持。SELCO創(chuàng)建者海德博士說，“社會企業(yè)僅僅采用一個商業(yè)計劃，或者做一些鄉(xiāng)村旅游是不能夠提供真正的解決方案的”，“沒有什么困難能夠與深入窮鄉(xiāng)僻壤，實實在在與那些貧窮的人們執(zhí)行和改善一個解決方案的困難相比”。他還指出投資人際交往的重要性。他說，“我一直告訴青年社會創(chuàng)業(yè)者要廣交朋友。我就與當地的銀行經理和他們的助手成為了好朋友”。（http：//reports.weforum.org/social-innovation-2013/view/selco/）

Contextual Differences

環(huán)境差異

Most youth employment programmes tend to focus primarily on urban areas over rural areas possibly due to the greater range of opportunities available in urban areas. In rural areas challenges include inadequate market size， poor infrastructure， education and training， technological readiness and availability of research and training services. Rural areas also have different entrepreneurial profiles which need to be considered in programming approaches.

可能由于城市能提供更多的機遇，很多的青年就業(yè)項目傾向于關注城市，忽略農村。農村的困難之處在于市場不夠大，基礎設施差，教育和培訓跟不上，技術配套不成熟，研究和培訓服務不夠普及。農村同樣有不同的創(chuàng)業(yè)特征，這些在規(guī)劃時就應被考慮到。

In conflict and post conflict areas necessity driven entrepreneurs are far more common than opportunity driven entrepreneurs. Growth expectations are considerably higher in conflict affected contexts although these initiatives often end up being undermined by the conflict. These areas also suffer from a lack of protection for investment poor infrastructure， and low levels of education and training act as severe constraints to growth. According to the World Bank 15 of the 20 poorest countries in the World have experienced periods of conflict since the 1980s. Nonetheless， post conflict reconstruction can be greatly aided by young entrepreneurs. Organisations such as the Business Council For Peace （BPeace） work on the principle that job creation leads to peace creation.

在戰(zhàn)區(qū)和戰(zhàn)后區(qū)，創(chuàng)業(yè)者更多地是為了糊口，而非追求機遇。戰(zhàn)爭肆虐的區(qū)域增長預期遠高于其他地區(qū)，盡管最后結果往往被戰(zhàn)爭削弱。這些區(qū)域也缺少投資保護，基礎設施惡劣，教育培訓水平低下，這些都是增長的重大制約因素。世界銀行稱，世界上前20個最窮的國家中的15個國家在上個世紀80年代之后都曾爆發(fā)過戰(zhàn)爭。然而，青年創(chuàng)業(yè)者可以為戰(zhàn)后重建做出巨大貢獻。和平商業(yè)委員會（BPeace）之類的機構就致力于踐行“創(chuàng)造就業(yè)即創(chuàng)造和平”這一信念。

Online Platforms

網上平臺

These provide a key opportunity for new entrepreneurs to exploit and must be included in programmatic approaches. These provide access to a new community of potential clients and market segments and lower overhead costs.

The internet also provides an excellent platform for discussions on social development. For example the United Nations Programme on Youth and Employment which used E-platforms to enable youth led organizations and youth to share their views， experiences and recommendations on preparing for， entering and remaining active in the labour market.

網上平臺為新興創(chuàng)業(yè)者提供了重要的機遇，應被考慮在項目方案中。它們可以提供一個有潛在客戶、細分市場和雜項成本更低的新社區(qū)。

因特網也為關于社會發(fā)展的討論提供了一個絕佳的平臺。比如，聯合國青年與就業(yè)項目使用電子平臺，幫助青年領導組織和青年分享觀點、經驗和建議，從而幫助青年為加入勞動市場做更好的準備并保持活躍。

Crowd funding is typically also done using online platforms to raise large amounts by collecting smaller amounts from individual donations for example but in large numbers， a tactic used in the first election campaign of the US president Barack Obama. There are many examples of crowd funding towards a charitable cause such as the funding of small loans on Kiva to entrepreneurs in Africa.

The use of crowd funding allows the impact of macro scale NGO and Government interventions to reach deep within communities via the use of social networks. It also provides access to capital for community businesses. A boom of crowd funding platforms in the Middle East is helping to give entrepreneurs easier access to capital — to a degree that may help address economic inequality and political instability. An entrepreneur proposes a business， charitable， or creative project on a crowd funding Website. If convinced， tens， hundreds， or even thousands of individuals commit relatively small amounts of capital to support the idea. Taken together， these contributions are often enough to propel the project from the idea stage to commercial reality. The crowd funding industry is in its infancy， but it topped $3 billion in global transactions in 2012 and may have exceeded $5 billion by the end of 2013. （Ref： http：//voices.mckinseyonsociety.com/jason-best-aamir-rehman-middle-east-crowdfunding/#sthash.x5r9V8i2.dpuf）

集體融資也是利用網上平臺募集微小的個體捐助，從而匯聚成大額資金，比如，美國總統奧巴馬第一次總統選舉就是用的這個方法，當然他是募集大量的個體捐助。有關慈善事業(yè)的集體融資案例更多，比如非洲的基瓦（Kiva）就是為企業(yè)家提供小額貸款的融資項目。

集體融資也讓大規(guī)模的非政府組織和政府干預通過社交網絡擴展到社區(qū)。并且為社區(qū)商戶提供資金渠道。中東地區(qū)集體融資平臺的成功發(fā)展使企業(yè)家更容易籌到資金，并對解決經濟不平等和社會不穩(wěn)定有所幫助。一個企業(yè)家在一個集體融資的網址上發(fā)出一個商業(yè)、慈善或創(chuàng)造性的項目，如果被人信服，成百上千，甚至上萬人將各自拿出相對較小額的資金支持他的這個想法。這些錢都加起來，往往足夠資助這個項目從概念階段過渡到一個商業(yè)現實。集體融資業(yè)目前雖然還在萌芽階段，但是2012年已經達到全球交易額的30億美元，并且有望在2013年年底前超過50億。（參見： http：//voices.mckinseyonsociety.com/jason-best-aamir-rehman-middle-east-crowdfunding/#sthash.x5r9V8i2.dpuf）

Green Jobs

綠色工作

A newly emerging area is that of environmentally sustainable employment also known as Green Jobs. The ILO runs a “Green Jobs Programme” that works towards environmentally sustainable economic and social development. The jobs created then have reduced environmental impact and benefits from the organisations unique tripartite nature that combines government， employers and employees to jointly shape programmes. These jobs are diverse in that the approach can be applied to all sectors of the economy， across all segments and in urban and rural areas.

環(huán)境友好和可持續(xù)的就業(yè)是一個新興領域，也被稱為綠色工作。國際勞工組織實施的“綠色工作項目”致力于取得環(huán)境友好和可持續(xù)的經濟社會進步。這種工作減少了環(huán)境損害，并且具有獨一無二的特質，政府、雇主和員工共同參與制定計劃。這類工作類型十分廣泛，可以應用到農村和城市的所有經濟領域和產業(yè)。

For example in Ghana， “ecopreneurs” seek to strike a balance between economics and the environment. For example， social forestry programmes provides jobs and sensitizes people about the significance of forest conservation and its benefits. The challenge lies in proving to investors that large scale plantation programmes would provide enough income to the villagers which will result in fewer trees being cut down.

比如在加納，“ecopreneurs”（生態(tài)企業(yè)家）尋求在經濟和環(huán)境之間找到平衡。例如，社會林業(yè)項目提供就業(yè)機會，并幫助人們加深對森林保護及其作用的了解。其困難在于向投資者證明，大型種植園項目能夠給當地村民帶來足夠的收入，從而減少樹木砍伐。

Gender and Entrepreneurship

性別與創(chuàng)業(yè)

Finding employment worldwide is a greater challenge for young women than men. Women are also involved in significant numbers in entrepreneurship worldwide. Women are influenced by many of the same factors that affect men when making entrepreneurial decisions but the systemically lower rate of female participation points to other differences. This gender gap is an avenue that needs further research and has the potential to be important for future planning of youth entrepreneurship policy and programmes.

In low income countries illiteracy encourages entrepreneurial activities but this effect is undone in the presence of welfare support or stable employment in both low and high income countries. Data also shows that women based businesses grow slower than male ones but that they use more bank loans and smaller start-up capital. In developing countries as a whole 34% of young women are expected to be unemployed which is affected by gender specific factors including a disproportionate share of unpaid domestic labour， lack of productive skills and contacts， opposition from male partners or family and employer preference for men over women.

全世界女性找工作都比男性會面對更多困難。女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者不在少數，她們在制定創(chuàng)業(yè)決策時受到的很多影響因素與男性相同，但是總體來看女性參與度更低，這說明還有其他的不公平因素存在。需要對性別差異進行進一步研究，未來對青年創(chuàng)業(yè)政策和項目規(guī)劃要考慮到這一點。

在低收入國家，缺乏教育通常會刺激創(chuàng)業(yè)活動的開展，但是這種效力卻往往被社會保障的支持和穩(wěn)定的就業(yè)抵消，無論是在高收入還是低收入國家。數據還顯示女性創(chuàng)業(yè)比男性增長更為緩慢，但是女性相比男性更傾向使用銀行貸款和小額的啟動資金。發(fā)展中國家34%的青年女性處于失業(yè)狀態(tài)，原因是受到一系列因素影響，包括女性長時間的義務家務勞動，缺乏生產性技巧和人脈，遭到男性伴侶或家庭的反對，及雇主更傾向于雇傭男性。

Women’s issues in the market place have resulted in two types of responses， the “Latin American model” and the livelihoods approach. The Latin American model focuses on decentralized， gender-equitable vocational training with strong linkages to the local private sector. The livelihoods approach places more emphasis on peer group formation and the integration of sexual and reproductive health education with vocational and/or micro-enterprise training. While the generally positive effects of the Latin American approach on employment and earnings are well-documented， evaluations of livelihood programmes so far suggest more modest outcomes as far access to labour market is concerned. Despite numerous hurdles， both structural and cultural， young women entrepreneurs are creating innovative products and ultimately， changing the world. It has also been demonstrated that female entrepreneurs are really doing business by their own rules. According to Rebekah Epstein， the founder of fifteen media， “In the past， women have felt like they have to embody masculine characteristics to be successful. This isn’t the case anymore”.

解決女性就業(yè)問題有兩種途徑，“拉美模式”和求生途徑。拉美模式側重于分散的、無性別差異的職業(yè)培訓，一般都與地方私營部門有著緊密聯系。求生途徑則更強調同類群體的形成，并強調將性和生殖健康教育與職業(yè)和小型企業(yè)培訓結合起來。有關拉美模式對就業(yè)和收入的積極影響的分析已經有很多報告，但是由于求生項目較難進入勞動市場，目前對該類項目的評估顯示其效果不容樂觀。盡管青年女性企業(yè)家面對無數障礙，包括結構性和文化層面的障礙，她們仍在生產創(chuàng)新性產品，并且最終改變了世界。女性企業(yè)家經商有自己的一套方法，這一點已被證實。作為十五家媒體的創(chuàng)始人，瑞貝卡·愛普斯坦說，“過去女性認為必須要具備男性的特征才能成功，而今天這個法則已經不適用了”。

Entrepreneurship as Empowerment

創(chuàng)業(yè)賦權

The World Bank launched a scheme in 2008 dubbed the Adolescent Girls Initiative – Investing in Young Women as Smart Economics （AGI） a Public Private Partnership to promote the transition of adolescent girls and young women from school to economic empowerment. The scheme provides life skills training to address barriers. It will also seek to contribute to the thin body of knowledge on the female challenges to transition from school to productive work.

世界銀行于2008年啟動了一項計劃，名為“少女計劃——資助青年女性加入公共私營合伙企業(yè)的聰明經濟學（AGI）”，以幫助少女及青年女性完成從學校到經濟獨立的過渡。該計劃提供生活技能培訓，旨在消除性別障礙，并希望豐富有關女性從學校到生產性工作過渡的知識庫，而現有的有關知識尚顯不足。

Key Challenges

主要挑戰(zhàn)

The problems of youth employment are certainly caused by a wide range of factors； however several key challenges can be identified. These are：

· the lack of an enterprise culture in many countries；

· unfavourable legal， policy and regulatory frameworks for youth entrepreneurship； lack of entrepreneurship education across formal and informal educational systems；

· lack of access to affordable financing in the form of start-up， investment or working capital

· and poor familiarity with， and access to， relevant business development services and support schemes for those youth already in business or for those interested in pursuing an entrepreneurial career.

毋庸置疑，造成青年就業(yè)問題的原因是廣泛的，已經確定的幾大原因如下：

·許多國家缺少企業(yè)文化；

·不利于青年創(chuàng)業(yè)的法規(guī)、政策和管理框架；正規(guī)和非正規(guī)教育缺乏創(chuàng)業(yè)教育；

·創(chuàng)業(yè)啟動、投資或運作資金缺少合理的融資渠道；

·不熟悉或者很難獲取相關商業(yè)發(fā)展服務，針對已經經商或者有興趣創(chuàng)業(yè)的青年的支持機制不夠完善，

Youth underemployment and employment impose weighty social and economic costs on countries， particularly more so on developing nations and impact on the potential for growth. Youth also lack entrepreneurial skills and resources to succeed and many efforts fail within the first few months.

青年就業(yè)不足和失業(yè)給國家尤其是發(fā)展中國家?guī)沓林氐纳鐣徒洕摀?，對其發(fā)展?jié)摿碡撁嬗绊?。青年也缺乏成功必備的?chuàng)業(yè)技能和資源，很多人在創(chuàng)業(yè)幾個月后就失敗了。

Major Multilateral Support Schemes

主要的多方支持機制

Youth Employment Framework （YEF） -- This approach provides a template for economic approaches to youth employment. The framework identifies four main categories of interventions that can be undertaken namely：

i. Supply-side interventions that focus on promoting the employability of the workforce；

ii. Demand-side interventions that expand employment opportunities by creating a demand for labour；

iii. Matchmaking and mediation interventions that facilitate information exchange between labour supply and demand， and bring transparency to the market； and

iv.Comprehensive interventions that include activities from a combination of the other three categories.

青年就業(yè)框架（YEF）——為解決青年就業(yè)的經濟途徑提供了一個模板。該框架明確了四種可操作的干預措施，即：

i. 從供應鏈入手進行干預，注重提高勞動力的就業(yè)力

ii. 從需求鏈手進行干預，通過創(chuàng)造勞動需求擴大就業(yè)機會

iii. 采取牽線搭橋和調控等手段進行干預，促進勞動供需雙方的信息交換，提高市場透明度。

iv. 綜合干預包括其他結合三個干預手段。

World Bank Youth Employment Inventory （YEI） Database that lists 289 separate youth employment programmes from 84 countries around the World. This database allows one to identify what forms of interventions are carried out most commonly. The majority of programs focus on improving the supply side of the problem while approximately 34% focused on comprehensive approaches including job creation.

The issue of youth employment has come to the fore following the events of the Arab Spring and it has been recommended that the World Bank mainstream youth employment concerns into its larger strategies.

世界銀行就業(yè)目錄數據（YEI）列舉了84個國家289個青年就業(yè)項目。通過該數據庫，我們可以得出應用最為普遍的干預手段。大多數項目側重完善供應鏈，大約34%則側重綜合性干預，包括提高創(chuàng)業(yè)就業(yè)機會。

在阿拉伯之春事件后，青年就業(yè)問題日益嚴峻，相關人士建議世界銀行應更加重視青年就業(yè)問題，將其作為主要議題列入更大的戰(zhàn)略之中。

Youth Employment Network （YEN） – Partnership between the United Nations， ILO and the World Bank to mobilize action behind the commitment of the Millennium Summit in favor of decent and productive work for young people. It acts as a global platform on these issues and allows for sharing of ideas and best practices. The Network has：

· Mobilization of USD10 million in the sole 2009 and from various donors in support of the Network.

· Development and dissemination of various publications and advocacy material on youth employment.

· Training of over 1，500 youth representatives as dedicated advocates.

· Revision of the “Lead Country” Network： 17 countries have renewed commitments to the Network since major revisions were made in 2009.

青年就業(yè)網（YEN）——是聯合國、國際勞工組織和世界銀行的合作項目，旨在幫助實踐千禧年峰會承諾的行動，為青年提供更體面和生產力更高的工作。YEN為觀點和實踐范例的分享和傳播提供了國際平臺。它包括：

·僅2009年1年就從各種來源的捐助者手中籌集到一千萬美元用以支持YEN工作

·有關就業(yè)青年的各種出版物和宣傳材料的制作和傳播

·培訓1500多名青年代表，使其成為堅定的支持者

·完善“領導國家”網：2009年重大改版后，17個國家恢復與YEN之間的承諾關系。

The International Labor Organisations Youth Employment Programme （YEP） – This is a global network of specialists who provide assistance on youth employment strategy development interventions. Its work includes：

· Data collection on the nature and dimensions of youth employment， unemployment and under-employment；

· Analysis of the effectiveness of country policies and programmes on youth employment；

· Policy advice to strengthen labour market policies and programmes for youth employment， as well as capacity-building for governments， employers’ and workers’ organizations；

· Technical assistance in formulating and implementing national youth employment programmes that focus on job-intensive investment， skills development， youth entrepreneurship， access to finance and other， targeted active labour market measures；

· Advocacy and awareness-raising to promote decent work for youth with a focus on employability， employment and workers’ rights；

· Advisory services through the YEN partnership， including evaluation “clinics” and support to YEN “l(fā)ead countries”； and

· Strategic partnerships for youth employment through the promotion of cross-country and global peer networks， inter-agency cooperation across United Nations and other international agencies， and collaboration between the private and public sectors at the international， regional and national levels.

國際勞工組織青年就業(yè)項目（YEP）——是一個由專家組成的全球網絡，這些專家提供有關青年就業(yè)戰(zhàn)略發(fā)展干預的協助工作，包括：

·收集有關青年就業(yè)、失業(yè)和就業(yè)不足的性質和范圍的數據；

·分析有關青年就業(yè)的國家政策和項目的實效；

·強化勞動市場政策和青年就業(yè)項目的政策建議，及加強政府、雇主和員工的能力建設；

·制定和執(zhí)行全國青年就業(yè)項目的技術支持，這類項目側重工作為導向的投資，技能發(fā)展，青年創(chuàng)業(yè)，增加金融渠道，有針對性的活躍勞動市場的措施；

·宣傳和增強民主意識，從而幫助青年獲得正當工作，側重就業(yè)力、就業(yè)和員工權利。

·通過YEN合作方提供咨詢服務，包括評估“診所”， 支持YEN“領導國家”項目；以及

·在聯合國和其他國際機構范圍內通過加強跨國和全球同齡人網絡、機構間合作，以及國際、地區(qū)和國家層面公立和私營部門的協作，建立青年就業(yè)戰(zhàn)略合作伙伴關系。

Ongoing Policies Favoring Entrepreneurship

現有的創(chuàng)業(yè)支持政策

“Engaging the young population fully is no longer a choice， but an imperative in the development process”

These are some of the approaches currently being deployed by various governments.

- Start up credits – To unemployed youth including tax exemptions hiring subsidies and government backed guarantees.

- Africa’s Youth Entrepreneurship Facility （YEF） Includes a Youth to Youth Fund that offers Youth led organizations the chance to develop entrepreneurship in local communities.

- UN HABITAT Youth Fund – Promotes youth led organizations based in cities in developing counties for new ideas for job creation， good governance， adequate shelter and secure tenure.

- Technical Advice – for first time job seekers

- Training for young entrepreneurs

- Expansion of social safety nets

“讓所有青年全面參與已經不僅僅是一個選擇，而是發(fā)展進程中的必經之路”

很多國家已經采取了一些措施。

——啟動信貸——針對失業(yè)青年，包括雇傭補助，免稅優(yōu)惠和政府支持擔保。

——非洲青年創(chuàng)業(yè)機制（YEF），包括“青年對青年基金”，使青年領導組織有機會在地方社區(qū)進行創(chuàng)業(yè)。

——聯合國人居署青年基金——促進發(fā)展中國家城市中青年領導組織挖掘提高就業(yè)、完善治理、加強住房和安全就業(yè)保障的新思路。

——技術咨詢——針對首次求職者。

——針對青年創(chuàng)業(yè)者的培訓。

——擴大社會安全保障。

Creating a Stimulating Environment

創(chuàng)建一個充滿激勵的環(huán)境

Four main factors have been identified that foster entrepreneurship worldwide：

（1） prevailing norms and values with regard to entrepreneurship

（2） the policy， legal and regulatory frameworks in which youth-led enterprises operate

（3） the administrative arrangements used to implement and enforce this framework and

（4） the organizations that promote， regulate， support and represent enterprises， labour， including financial institutions

世界上已經明確的促進創(chuàng)業(yè)的主要因素有四個：

（1）關于創(chuàng)業(yè)的主導規(guī)范和價值觀；

（2）青年創(chuàng)業(yè)的政策、法律和管理框架；

（3）用以執(zhí)行和實施該框架的行政部署；

（4）促進、管理、支持和代表這些企業(yè)、勞動者包括金融機構的組織。

The ILO argues that integrated youth oriented strategies for growth and job creation should be contained within broader ranging national employment policies that intervene on multiple levels and across multiple sectors. Creating a stimulating environment for youth entrepreneurship and employment can be achieved through macro and micro level approaches under which there are seven broad strategies. These are：

Macro Level Strategies include：

（1） Adequate macroeconomic and growth policies

（2） Active labour market policies and programmes

（3） Adequate education policies；

Micro Level Strategies include：

（4） Addressing skills mismatches

（5） Gender-sensitive programmes and policies

（6） Social dialogue and dedicated partnerships and

（7） Maintaining an ongoing research agenda on entrepreneurship in a bid to adjust policies and frameworks to needs over time.

國際勞工組織認為，關注青年的增長和就業(yè)的整合戰(zhàn)略應被納入更廣的國家就業(yè)政策里，這些政策應在多層次跨部門實施干預。通過在宏觀和微觀層面可以為青年創(chuàng)業(yè)和就業(yè)創(chuàng)造一個充滿激勵的環(huán)境，包括七大戰(zhàn)略，即：

宏觀戰(zhàn)略包括：

（1）成熟的宏觀經濟和增長政策；

（2）活躍的勞動力市場政策和項目；

（3）完善的教育政策。

微觀戰(zhàn)略包括：

（4）解決技能不匹配的問題；

（5）基于性別差異的項目和政策；

（6）社會對話和堅定的合作關系；

（7）持對創(chuàng)業(yè)進行研究，從而及時調整政策和框架。

Conclusion

結論

Youth represent any country’s or region’s potential in terms of future economic and demographic growth， health， and prosperity. In order to fully activate this source of human capital， policy-makers must understand the diverse nature of youth as a heterogeneous population with wide ranging skills， challenges， and belief systems. In our efforts to encourage， secure and support young people to play their own role in the creation of decent work for all and also meeting commitments to the Millennium Development Goals， it is important to bring about an entrepreneurial culture to promote poverty eradication and ensure long-term， sustained and concerted action for the promotion of employment.

While it is the mandate of many United Nations and other international and bilateral organizations to work across regions， the overriding challenge is to foster an entrepreneurial culture globally while taking into careful consideration the varied social， cultural， economic， educational， and political and health characteristics that result in different levels of vulnerability or resilience. One of the key suggestions in this regard has been for youth employment promotion by geographic region. A report by Ikatu International in 2010 found that， based on the specific conditions of its young people， Sub-Saharan Africa exhibits the greatest need for youth employment promotion programmes and it is also host to the greatest number of countries featuring at the lower end of the Human Development Index， with the greatest number of out-of-school youth.

Interventions also need to prioritize urbanizing areas within Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia； the two regions with the greatest need for youth employment/entrepreneurship programmes. New interventions， especially in Sub-Saharan Africa， should be comprehensive in nature and be heavily focused on demand-side.

青年代表一個國家或地區(qū)未來經濟和人口增長、健康和繁榮的潛力。為充分激活人力資本的潛力，決策者應了解青年作為一個具有廣泛的技能、不同挑戰(zhàn)和不同信仰系統的異質群體的特征。我們在鼓勵、保障和支持青年人為所有人帶來正當工作機會，在實現千年發(fā)展目標的過程中發(fā)揮自己的作用時，應著重培養(yǎng)創(chuàng)業(yè)文化的形成，加速消除貧困，從而確保長期地可持續(xù)地促進就業(yè)工作。

對于很多聯合國和其他跨區(qū)域的國際和雙邊機構而言，這是必須的要求，然而最大的挑戰(zhàn)在于在全球范圍內培養(yǎng)創(chuàng)業(yè)文化，同時要考慮到不同的社會、文化、經濟、教育、政治和健康特征，這些特征導致不同程度的脆弱性或反彈力。關于此，重要建議之一是根據地理區(qū)域的差別促進青年就業(yè)。2010年Ikatu國際組織的一份報告顯示，根據青年的不同情況，撒哈拉以南地區(qū)最需要青年就業(yè)促進項目，擁有最多人類發(fā)展指數最低值，并且該地區(qū)失學青年人口最多。

撒哈拉以南和南亞內的城市化區(qū)域尤其需要采取干預措施；這兩個區(qū)域對青年就業(yè)/創(chuàng)業(yè)項目的需求最多。尤其針對撒哈拉以南的新的干預措施應該是綜合性的，并且要側重于需求層面。

Youth unemployment rates were projected to remain essentially unchanged in 2013， and remain major challenges in most regions， a strong suggestion that specific policies warrant the highest priority. Youth employment is a rising priority in national policy agendas but all-too frequently fails to result in effective action， with funding often limited and resources underestimated.

Though unlikely to act as a panacea for youth unemployment， entrepreneurship can be part of the response. To maximise effectiveness and efficiency， policy should target resources on young people with the best chance of success， provide sufficient support to allow them to start businesses where barriers are neither too low nor too high though in highly competitive sectors， and providing integrated packages of complementary support rather than one-shot instruments.

Sustainable approaches to development are increasingly pushing policy-makers and businesses to integrate the social， economic and environmental dimensions. Human progress and sustainable economic development depend on new ideas and the ability of young and future entrepreneurs to implement these ideas. Given the various areas that require reforms （ranging from education and professional training to financing and other shortcomings）； this discussion is multidisciplinary in nature. Our strategy needs to be an integrated one that focuses on growth and job creation for young people； improving the quality of jobs through strengthened labour standards； investing in the quality of education and training； and pursuing financial and macroeconomic policies that aim to remove obstacles to economic recovery. For these policies to be truly effective， they need to be approached against a background of broader-ranging employment policies and programmes.

2013年青年失業(yè)率幾乎沒有變化，仍是很多地區(qū)的重要挑戰(zhàn)，這就證明必須有具體政策才能確保足夠的重視。青年就業(yè)在國家政策的地位日趨重要，但是往往由于資金短缺和被低估，沒有形成有效行動。

雖然創(chuàng)業(yè)不可能成為青年就業(yè)的萬能良藥，但是其作用是毋庸置疑的。如果要讓政策取得最大成效和效能，應針對那些最有可能成功的青年群體，為他們提供足夠的支持，使他們能夠即使在競爭激烈的行業(yè)中，也能在門檻不高不低的條件下開始創(chuàng)業(yè)，并為其提供整合的補償性支持，而非一次性幫助。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展的途徑讓決策者和商業(yè)機構更加綜合考量社會、經濟和環(huán)境因素。人類進步和可持續(xù)經濟的發(fā)展取決于新觀點和青年及未來企業(yè)家實踐這些觀點的能力。鑒于需要改革的各種領域（從教育、職業(yè)培訓到融資和其他問題）；這個討論本質上就是跨學科的。我們的策略必須是一個整體，側重針對青年的成長和就業(yè)；通過加強勞動標準提高工作質量；投資教育和培訓質量；追求財政和宏觀經濟政策，以消除經濟恢復的壁壘。為了讓這些政策發(fā)揮實效，應將其放在一個更廣的就業(yè)政策和項目的大背景下考慮。

Acknowledgement： This article is based on desk research of literature on the subject as well as interviews. Special gratitude to Mr. Thierry Naudin who provided valuable inputs and editorial support. He was the editor of the State of the Urban Youth Reports.

致謝：該文章基于有關文獻的案頭工作和采訪。尤其感謝提供大量珍貴資料和編輯支持的蒂埃里·諾丹先生，他是《青年城市狀況報告》的編輯。

Brief Bio

個人簡介

Mr. S. Ananthakrishnan

S·阿納塔·克里什楠

Has 35 years of experience in international development work， including over 12 years of work with the UN in Youth empowerment initiatives， policy and research， advocacy， program management including development and implementation of projects. Recent work includes a consultancy assignment for the Norwegian Government on studying the impact of urbanisation on women’s empowerment. Also completed a strategy document for UNIDO on youth employment and entrepreneurship. Very recently a position paper was developed by him for UN-Habitat on Urban Basic Services.

Over the past decade Ananthakrishnan has focused on innovative programs furthering the agenda of children and youth， and managed a portfolio of such programming for UN-HABITAT headquartered in Nairobi， Kenya， totaling approximately US $2 million annually. In his capacity as Chief of the Partners and Youth Branch of UN-HABITAT， he helped the agency become the leader within the United Nations system in recognizing and tapping into the positive potential of youth and working for a rights based approach to children and youth issues in urban areas. He was instrumental in setting up and managing a fund for urban youth， to benefit youth initiatives at the local level.

In his time at both UN-HABITAT and UNEP， he has been responsible for the mobilization of substantial resources from governments， foundations and the private sector for the implementation of civil society and youth programs， and has actively fostered and promoted inter-agency collaboration for greater efficiency and impact of youth programming.

阿納塔·克里什楠先生在國際發(fā)展工作方面有35年的經驗，有12年為聯合國青年賦權行動、政策和研究、宣傳、包括制定和執(zhí)行項目管理的工作經歷。他最近的工作內容包括挪威政府委派的咨詢工作，研究城市化對婦女賦權的影響。并且還為聯合國工業(yè)發(fā)展組織撰寫了有關青年就業(yè)和創(chuàng)業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略性文件。他最近還為聯合國人居署就城市基礎服務完成了一份意見書。

在過去十年間，他側重于開展創(chuàng)新性項目，促進兒童和青年工作，管理總部位于肯尼亞內羅畢的聯合國人居署的投資項目，每年約二百萬美元。在作為聯合國人居署伙伴和青年部部長期間，該機構成為聯合國系統內在認識和發(fā)掘青年的積極潛能以及為城市兒童和青年尋求一個基于權利的解決方案領域的佼佼者。他幫助建立和管理城市青年基金，促進地方層面的青年行動。

在聯合國人居署和聯合國環(huán)境署期間，他還負責招募政府、基金會以及私營部門的大力支持，從而實施民間團體和青年項目，并且非常積極地培養(yǎng)和促進機構間合作，使其更加高效，增大青年項目的影響力。

Mr. Iqbal Basant is a Research Consultant who holds a Master’s Degree in Globalization and Development from the University of Warwick and has worked on issues related to gender and youth. His key specialty areas include Transitional Justice Democratic Transitions， Democracy in Kenya and Development. Iqbal has worked tirelessly to create social awareness and promote healthy， constructive debate. His work on youth issues with UN-HABITAT is a prime example of this， via initiatives that sought to engage youth and youth practitioners on a global scale within the urban context. Other specialty areas include the Horn of Africa， Anti-Globalization Movements， Comparative Politics， Governance and East Asian Development models.

伊克巴爾·巴桑特先生是一名研究咨詢師，擁有沃里克大學全球化和發(fā)展的碩士學位，曾研究過性別和青年相關問題。他主要擅長的研究領域包括過渡中的司法民主過渡，肯尼亞民主和發(fā)展。他為增進社會意識，促進健康和建設性辯論而不懈努力。他與聯合國人居署合作的青年工作就是很好的例子，尋求全球范圍內青年和青年從業(yè)者的參與。此外他還擅長研究包括非洲之角，反全球化運動，比較政治學，治理和東亞發(fā)展模式。