Ａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ ｏｆ?。粒妫妫澹悖簦椋觯濉。疲幔悖簦铮颍蟆。幔睿洹。茫铮颍颍澹螅穑铮睿洌椋睿纭。樱铮欤酰簦椋铮睢。椋睢。牛睿纾欤椋螅琛。裕澹幔悖瑁椋睿?/h1>
2009-06-02 06:58張勁松
文科愛好者·教育教學(xué)版 2009年1期
[Abstract] Affect is the related issues that influence the students learning progress and result, including ones interest, emotion, self-confidence and so on. Affective factors are the motivation for the students learning. In the past few decades, people have always been pursuing the effective methods of teaching, from the Grammar Translation Method, to Communicative Language Teaching. Now people start to focus on affective teaching and have got some good result.
[Keywords] effect, affective factors, English teaching
[中圖分類號(hào)] G642 [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼] A[文章編號(hào)] 1671-1270（2009)1-0004-02
Theoretically, affect is a term that refers to the purposive and emotional sides of a persons reactions to what is going on. It has to do with aspects of persons emotional being. However, it is not easy to give a clearly stated definition of it. If teachers could use more positive, facilitative emotions instead of negative emotions in teaching, the language learning will be more effective. Affect plays a very important role in learning too——that is, in the process of changing a learners inner resources so that they will become useful. Here, inner resources refer to learners affective factors. Accordingly, research has focused on individual difference: characteristics of the students such as attitudes and motivations, language anxiety, inhibition, self-confidence, field independence, personality variables, intelligence, language aptitude and language learning strategies. Krashen (1985) suggests the notion of the affective filter. This is a representation of the way in which affective factors such as competitiveness and other emotional responses can help of hinder language learning.
1. Affective factors in English teaching
Various affective factors in English learning interweave so that we cant separate the function of one from that of the others. The main affective factors are as follows:
1.1 Motivation
Motivation is an important affective factor which influences foreign language learning. It is considered as a key to successful learning. Motivation is commonly thought of as an inner drive, impulse, need, or desire that moves one to a particular action. Gardner and Lambert (1972) place motivation into two categories: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is characterized by the learners positive attitudes towards the target language group and the desire to integrate into the target language community. In some of the early researches conducted by Gardner and Lambert, integrative motivation was viewed as being of more importance in a formal learning environment than instrumental motivation. In later studies, integrative motivation has continued to be emphasized, although now the importance of instrumental motivation is also stressed. However, it is important to note that instrumental motivation has only been acknowledged as a significant factor in some researches whereas integrative motivation is continually kinked to successful second language acquisition. It has been found that generally students select instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of a language. Those who do support an integrative approach to language study are usually more highly motivated and over all more successful in language learning. One area where instrumental motivation can prove to be successful is in the situation where the learner is provided with no opportunity to use the target language and therefore, no chance to interact with members of the target group. The social situation helps to determine both what kind of orientation learners have and what kind is most important for language learning. Learners rarely select one form of motivation when learning a second language, but rather a combination of both orientations.
1.2 Self-confidence
Self-confidence is normally assumed to have an influence on successful learning. When affective factors are explicitly discussed, there seems to be a consensus that the general notion of self-confidence may be a crucial factor in the learners ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second language. By self-confidence, we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself. In short, self-confidence is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior. From the definition, we can see that self-confidence plays a very important role in human behavior. Self-confidence manifested in foreign language learning includes both learners assessments of their overall linguistic competence and their assessments of a specific skill. We would expect that lack of self-confidence would be an inhibiting factor for learners.
1.3 Anxiety
Anxiety is perhaps the affective factor which impedes language learning to the greatest extent. It is related with such had feelings as uneasiness, disappointment, self-doubt, worry or tension. It is perhaps best viewed as an aspect of personality. State anxiety can be defined as apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time, as a response to a definite situation. It is a combination of trait and situation-specific anxiety. This latter type consists of the anxiety which is aroused a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking, examinations, or class participation. The diary studies indicate that learners competitive nature can act as a source of anxiety.
2. Solution to the current phenomenon
Learners, in particular classroom learners, react to the learning situations they find themselves in a variety of affective ways. Many studies testify to the complexity and dynamic nature of learners affective states and the influence these have on their ability to concentrate on learning. Learners, it seems, need to feel secure and to be free of stress before they can focus on the learning task, the importance of which is directly acknowledged in humanistic approaches to language teaching. As teachers, they have responsibility to set the tone or interpersonal classroom climate. The atmosphere set will determine whether the students non-linguistic emotional needs are met in the classroom. In an effective emotional climate learners are relaxed and confident enough to exploit fully the opportunities that present themselves. In an effort to establish an effective emotional climate, the first thing that has to be dealt with is motivation of the students.
2.1 Motivating students to learn English
It is generally agreed that motivation is one of the most important factors that influence the learners success or failure in learning a language. Therefore, a study of motivation is crucially vital to the language teachers. The following corresponding solutions should be to motivate students to be enthusiastic about English learning.
2.1.1 Making students feel successful
Everyone needs success. Feeling of success is the greatest motivation in any field. Tasks that are too easy require too little effort and produce no feelings of success and, consequently, are not motivational. Effective teachers know how to adjust the level of difficulty of learning tasks for particular students. Sometimes, this means providing special challenges for the brightest in the class and providing more support and assistance for those who find a particular task too difficult. Teachers have to give the brightest student a chance to show his talents and avoid the slow student to have the feeling of defeat when the help is given, do not let them sense it. For the best students, give them a challenge. For the slow students or isolated students, give them a chance to taste the joy of success. Though some of the best students are not afraid of defeat, frustration and depression dont have positive influence.
2.1.2 Organizing a rich variety of communicative activities
It is generally assumed that good teaching is good communication, communication between the teacher and students and communication among students. Therefore, teachers should design and organize a rich variety of student-centered activities to fit different stages of teaching. Here the premise is to get students involved and the key word is appropriateness. Students should have to do independent thinking and they may also learn from each other. By “pair work” and “discussion”, students shave chances to interact with each other and learn to express their ideas in their own words. Besides dialogues, role plays, story telling, information gap activities and even games, if used properly, all contribute to creating a better condition for language learning and language acquisition. Frequently put in such an English speaking environment and constantly encouraged to take a part, students gradually form the habit of speaking and become active participants.
2.1.3 Exciting students with rich content
Xu Guozhang (1991) writes, “To attract students with the power of knowledge. To excite students with rich content. And to conquer students with the power of wisdom.” Classroom activities should not focus on form only, but most important, on content. Content is the soul of language. Liu Runqing (1991) writes, “Men are intelligent creatures who will feel bored when their intelligent needs cannot be met.” How can students show real interest if they are forced to talk about things that are not their own choice nor based on their own needs? Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit a message not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning. So it is proposed that more realistic situations be created and more knowledge conveying teaching materials be introduced. Try to teach usage in use and communication in communication. Use authentic listening and reading materials and ask real questions.
2.1.4 Establishing cooperative relationships
Relationship refers to the classroom climate in which teachers and learners share the same purpose, have the intention to include each other and show affection to each other. Try to create a light and easy English teaming environment. Show concern for everyone, especially the nervous and the inactive. Be sensitive to their affective needs, and be sympathetic, warm and ready to help. Make students feel that they are working on something together with the teacher, not the teacher is going to teach them something alone. Take a positive attitude toward students mistakes because errors are natural and inevitable in the process of learning and practicing.
2.2 Creating emotional climates in the learning environment
Songs and dances have therapeutic benefits and can easily be incorporated into the language classroom. Songs can be highly cathartic, and ones own singing voice is generally therapeutic. We all have “pain” songs which bring tears to our eyes, and these are a wonderful means of releasing unexpressed negative emotion; allowable classroom tears can clear impediments to learning.
Dances harmonize the body through rhythmic coordination and balance, and this stimulation of the motor cortex invokes a similar integrated state in the brain. It also triggers the secretion of hormones, notably endorphins, which is pain-inhibiting and by extension pleasure-enhancing.
Thus, an ideal teaming state can be created by the aesthetic in different ways: the brain is integrated and harmonized, freed from emotional blocks by appropriate discharge, bathed in reassuring hormones and at the same time stimulated towards ever-greater problem-solving activity.
2.3 Training learning strategies in the language teaching
Learning strategies refer to the regulation and control of learning processes by a learner, or the measures taken for the final success of learning. Briefly speaking, learning strategies are learning methods in a broad sense.
Learning will be facilitated if students are explicitly trained to become more aware of and proficient in the use of a broad range of strategies that can be utilized throughout the language learning process. When strategy training is included in the instructional package, students can learn how to learn a foreign language while they are learning the language content.
3. Conclusion
Learning more about the complexities of learning, both cognitive and affective, can only help our professional growth and personal satisfaction. A teacher who truly understands the importance of affect in the classroom, and who believes that all students can learn, can offer opportunities for success to all students. Students need time to investigate and experience resources that enable them to experiment and discuss, and they need the opportunity to evaluate what they are learning about learning. The result can be educated students who are able to participate fully in society, both freely and responsibly.
【Bibliography】
[1]Gardner, R.C. and W. Lambert Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning[M]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972
[2]Krashen, S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications [M]. New York: Longman, 1985
[3]劉潤清.論大學(xué)英語教學(xué)[M].北京：外語教育與研究出版社，1991.
[4]許國璋.許國璋論語言[M].北京：外語教育與研究出版社，1991.
【作者簡介】張勁松,樂山師范學(xué)院外國語學(xué)院教師 四川 樂山 614000
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[Abstract] Affect is the related issues that influence the students learning progress and result, including ones interest, emotion, self-confidence and so on. Affective factors are the motivation for the students learning. In the past few decades, people have always been pursuing the effective methods of teaching, from the Grammar Translation Method, to Communicative Language Teaching. Now people start to focus on affective teaching and have got some good result.
[Keywords] effect, affective factors, English teaching
[中圖分類號(hào)] G642 [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼] A[文章編號(hào)] 1671-1270（2009)1-0004-02
Theoretically, affect is a term that refers to the purposive and emotional sides of a persons reactions to what is going on. It has to do with aspects of persons emotional being. However, it is not easy to give a clearly stated definition of it. If teachers could use more positive, facilitative emotions instead of negative emotions in teaching, the language learning will be more effective. Affect plays a very important role in learning too——that is, in the process of changing a learners inner resources so that they will become useful. Here, inner resources refer to learners affective factors. Accordingly, research has focused on individual difference: characteristics of the students such as attitudes and motivations, language anxiety, inhibition, self-confidence, field independence, personality variables, intelligence, language aptitude and language learning strategies. Krashen (1985) suggests the notion of the affective filter. This is a representation of the way in which affective factors such as competitiveness and other emotional responses can help of hinder language learning.
1. Affective factors in English teaching
Various affective factors in English learning interweave so that we cant separate the function of one from that of the others. The main affective factors are as follows:
1.1 Motivation
Motivation is an important affective factor which influences foreign language learning. It is considered as a key to successful learning. Motivation is commonly thought of as an inner drive, impulse, need, or desire that moves one to a particular action. Gardner and Lambert (1972) place motivation into two categories: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is characterized by the learners positive attitudes towards the target language group and the desire to integrate into the target language community. In some of the early researches conducted by Gardner and Lambert, integrative motivation was viewed as being of more importance in a formal learning environment than instrumental motivation. In later studies, integrative motivation has continued to be emphasized, although now the importance of instrumental motivation is also stressed. However, it is important to note that instrumental motivation has only been acknowledged as a significant factor in some researches whereas integrative motivation is continually kinked to successful second language acquisition. It has been found that generally students select instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of a language. Those who do support an integrative approach to language study are usually more highly motivated and over all more successful in language learning. One area where instrumental motivation can prove to be successful is in the situation where the learner is provided with no opportunity to use the target language and therefore, no chance to interact with members of the target group. The social situation helps to determine both what kind of orientation learners have and what kind is most important for language learning. Learners rarely select one form of motivation when learning a second language, but rather a combination of both orientations.
1.2 Self-confidence
Self-confidence is normally assumed to have an influence on successful learning. When affective factors are explicitly discussed, there seems to be a consensus that the general notion of self-confidence may be a crucial factor in the learners ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second language. By self-confidence, we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself. In short, self-confidence is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior. From the definition, we can see that self-confidence plays a very important role in human behavior. Self-confidence manifested in foreign language learning includes both learners assessments of their overall linguistic competence and their assessments of a specific skill. We would expect that lack of self-confidence would be an inhibiting factor for learners.
1.3 Anxiety
Anxiety is perhaps the affective factor which impedes language learning to the greatest extent. It is related with such had feelings as uneasiness, disappointment, self-doubt, worry or tension. It is perhaps best viewed as an aspect of personality. State anxiety can be defined as apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time, as a response to a definite situation. It is a combination of trait and situation-specific anxiety. This latter type consists of the anxiety which is aroused a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking, examinations, or class participation. The diary studies indicate that learners competitive nature can act as a source of anxiety.
2. Solution to the current phenomenon
Learners, in particular classroom learners, react to the learning situations they find themselves in a variety of affective ways. Many studies testify to the complexity and dynamic nature of learners affective states and the influence these have on their ability to concentrate on learning. Learners, it seems, need to feel secure and to be free of stress before they can focus on the learning task, the importance of which is directly acknowledged in humanistic approaches to language teaching. As teachers, they have responsibility to set the tone or interpersonal classroom climate. The atmosphere set will determine whether the students non-linguistic emotional needs are met in the classroom. In an effective emotional climate learners are relaxed and confident enough to exploit fully the opportunities that present themselves. In an effort to establish an effective emotional climate, the first thing that has to be dealt with is motivation of the students.
2.1 Motivating students to learn English
It is generally agreed that motivation is one of the most important factors that influence the learners success or failure in learning a language. Therefore, a study of motivation is crucially vital to the language teachers. The following corresponding solutions should be to motivate students to be enthusiastic about English learning.
2.1.1 Making students feel successful
Everyone needs success. Feeling of success is the greatest motivation in any field. Tasks that are too easy require too little effort and produce no feelings of success and, consequently, are not motivational. Effective teachers know how to adjust the level of difficulty of learning tasks for particular students. Sometimes, this means providing special challenges for the brightest in the class and providing more support and assistance for those who find a particular task too difficult. Teachers have to give the brightest student a chance to show his talents and avoid the slow student to have the feeling of defeat when the help is given, do not let them sense it. For the best students, give them a challenge. For the slow students or isolated students, give them a chance to taste the joy of success. Though some of the best students are not afraid of defeat, frustration and depression dont have positive influence.
2.1.2 Organizing a rich variety of communicative activities
It is generally assumed that good teaching is good communication, communication between the teacher and students and communication among students. Therefore, teachers should design and organize a rich variety of student-centered activities to fit different stages of teaching. Here the premise is to get students involved and the key word is appropriateness. Students should have to do independent thinking and they may also learn from each other. By “pair work” and “discussion”, students shave chances to interact with each other and learn to express their ideas in their own words. Besides dialogues, role plays, story telling, information gap activities and even games, if used properly, all contribute to creating a better condition for language learning and language acquisition. Frequently put in such an English speaking environment and constantly encouraged to take a part, students gradually form the habit of speaking and become active participants.
2.1.3 Exciting students with rich content
Xu Guozhang (1991) writes, “To attract students with the power of knowledge. To excite students with rich content. And to conquer students with the power of wisdom.” Classroom activities should not focus on form only, but most important, on content. Content is the soul of language. Liu Runqing (1991) writes, “Men are intelligent creatures who will feel bored when their intelligent needs cannot be met.” How can students show real interest if they are forced to talk about things that are not their own choice nor based on their own needs? Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit a message not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning. So it is proposed that more realistic situations be created and more knowledge conveying teaching materials be introduced. Try to teach usage in use and communication in communication. Use authentic listening and reading materials and ask real questions.
2.1.4 Establishing cooperative relationships
Relationship refers to the classroom climate in which teachers and learners share the same purpose, have the intention to include each other and show affection to each other. Try to create a light and easy English teaming environment. Show concern for everyone, especially the nervous and the inactive. Be sensitive to their affective needs, and be sympathetic, warm and ready to help. Make students feel that they are working on something together with the teacher, not the teacher is going to teach them something alone. Take a positive attitude toward students mistakes because errors are natural and inevitable in the process of learning and practicing.
2.2 Creating emotional climates in the learning environment
Songs and dances have therapeutic benefits and can easily be incorporated into the language classroom. Songs can be highly cathartic, and ones own singing voice is generally therapeutic. We all have “pain” songs which bring tears to our eyes, and these are a wonderful means of releasing unexpressed negative emotion; allowable classroom tears can clear impediments to learning.
Dances harmonize the body through rhythmic coordination and balance, and this stimulation of the motor cortex invokes a similar integrated state in the brain. It also triggers the secretion of hormones, notably endorphins, which is pain-inhibiting and by extension pleasure-enhancing.
Thus, an ideal teaming state can be created by the aesthetic in different ways: the brain is integrated and harmonized, freed from emotional blocks by appropriate discharge, bathed in reassuring hormones and at the same time stimulated towards ever-greater problem-solving activity.
2.3 Training learning strategies in the language teaching
Learning strategies refer to the regulation and control of learning processes by a learner, or the measures taken for the final success of learning. Briefly speaking, learning strategies are learning methods in a broad sense.
Learning will be facilitated if students are explicitly trained to become more aware of and proficient in the use of a broad range of strategies that can be utilized throughout the language learning process. When strategy training is included in the instructional package, students can learn how to learn a foreign language while they are learning the language content.
3. Conclusion
Learning more about the complexities of learning, both cognitive and affective, can only help our professional growth and personal satisfaction. A teacher who truly understands the importance of affect in the classroom, and who believes that all students can learn, can offer opportunities for success to all students. Students need time to investigate and experience resources that enable them to experiment and discuss, and they need the opportunity to evaluate what they are learning about learning. The result can be educated students who are able to participate fully in society, both freely and responsibly.
【Bibliography】
[1]Gardner, R.C. and W. Lambert Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning[M]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972
[2]Krashen, S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications [M]. New York: Longman, 1985
[3]劉潤清.論大學(xué)英語教學(xué)[M].北京：外語教育與研究出版社，1991.
[4]許國璋.許國璋論語言[M].北京：外語教育與研究出版社，1991.
【作者簡介】張勁松,樂山師范學(xué)院外國語學(xué)院教師 四川 樂山 614000
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