MXenes 基光催化劑的進(jìn)展、挑戰(zhàn)和展望

摘要：隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的不斷進(jìn)步，傳統(tǒng)的能源資源如石油和煤炭正面臨大規(guī)模耗竭的問題，同時也釋放出大量的溫室氣體，導(dǎo)致能源短缺和極端氣候變化，這已成為威脅人類生存和發(fā)展的緊迫挑戰(zhàn)。在這一背景下，光催化技術(shù)備受關(guān)注，因?yàn)樗梢詫⑻柲苡行У剞D(zhuǎn)化為化學(xué)能，被認(rèn)為是解決能源和環(huán)境問題的新興途徑。要實(shí)現(xiàn)高效的光催化反應(yīng)，選擇合適的催化劑至關(guān)重要。然而，常用的光催化劑，如二氧化鈦（TiO2）、硫化鎘（CdS）、氮化碳（g-C3N4）等存在著一系列問題，包括光生電荷復(fù)合率高、光能利用效率低、穩(wěn)定性差、電荷轉(zhuǎn)移速度慢等，這些缺陷限制了光催化效率的提高。為應(yīng)對這些挑戰(zhàn)，二維（2D）材料MXenes備受關(guān)注。MXenes具有獨(dú)特的結(jié)構(gòu)柔韌性、多樣性的元素組成、優(yōu)越的導(dǎo)電性、卓越的載流子遷移性能以及豐富的催化活性位點(diǎn)，這些特性有助于加速界面電荷轉(zhuǎn)移并抑制光生電荷復(fù)合，因此被廣泛應(yīng)用于光催化反應(yīng)中，充當(dāng)了催化劑的角色。本文綜合總結(jié)了制備高質(zhì)量MXenes的各種方法，包括水溶液刻蝕、無水刻蝕以及其他物理輔助方法。同時，還討論了構(gòu)建MXenes復(fù)合光催化體系的多種策略，例如原位生長合成、原位氧化合成和靜電自組裝等。此外，文中還回顧了MXene與其他材料如TiO2、CdS、g-C3N4、WO3、BiOBr等在光催化制氫、二氧化碳還原、環(huán)境修復(fù)、氮固定、殺菌等領(lǐng)域的研究進(jìn)展。最后，鑒于MXene本身存在的局限性以及產(chǎn)業(yè)化需求，文章還展望了MXene基復(fù)合材料在光催化領(lǐng)域的未來發(fā)展前景和面臨的挑戰(zhàn)?？偟膩碚f，本文為MXenes在光催化太陽能轉(zhuǎn)化中的應(yīng)用提供了詳實(shí)而豐富的信息。

關(guān)鍵詞：MXenes；二維材料；電荷轉(zhuǎn)移；光催化氧化還原；界面結(jié)構(gòu)

中圖分類號：O643

Abstract： With the advancement of science and technology， traditional energysources such as oil and coal have been extensively depleted， leading to the emissionof greenhouse gases like CO2. Consequently， issues such as energy scarcity anddrastic environmental changes have emerged as pressing concerns that threatenhuman survival and development. Photocatalysis offers a promising solution byharnessing solar energy for chemical energy conversion， yielding clean andsustainable products. It is widely regarded as an emerging approach to address theenergy crisis and environmental challenges. To achieve high-efficiency photocatalyticreactions， the selection of appropriate catalysts and co-catalysts plays a pivotal role.However， conventional photocatalysts such as TiO2， CdS， and g-C3N4 suffer frominherent limitations， including high charge recombination rates， low light utilizationefficiency， poor stability， and sluggish charge transfer kinetics， which hinder the enhancement of photocatalytic efficiency.In this context， two-dimensional （2D） materials known as MXenes have gained prominence. These materials exhibit uniquestructural flexibility， diverse elemental compositions， superior conductivity， excellent carrier mobility， and abundant activesites， making them valuable co-catalysts in photocatalysis. MXenes accelerate interfacial charge transfer kinetics andmitigate charge recombination， enhancing the overall photocatalytic performance. This review provides a comprehensiveoverview of various methods employed to prepare high-quality MXenes under different conditions， such as water solutionetching， water-free etching， and other physical methods. It also explores diverse strategies for constructing MXene-basedcomposite photocatalytic systems， including in situ growth synthesis， in situ oxidation synthesis， and electrostatic selfassembly.Additionally， the review discusses various MXenes-based photosystems， such as MXene/TiO2， MXene/CdS，MXene/g-C3N4， MXene/WO3， and BiOBr/MXene/MMTex， and their applications in photocatalytic processes， includinghydrogen production， CO2 reduction， environmental remediation， nitrogen fixation， and sterilization. The critical role ofMXenes as reduction co-catalysts in these photoredox catalysis reactions is thoroughly examined， along with an elucidationof the relationship between MXene electronic structure and charge transfer characteristics. Furthermore， the reviewaddresses the challenges related to the stability of MXenes in photocatalytic reactions and offers insights into potentialstrategies to mitigate this issue. Finally， the development prospects and future challenges of MXene-based composites inthe field of photocatalysis are presented， taking into consideration the inherent limitations of MXenes and the requirementsfor industrialization. It is expected that this review will provide valuable insights into the physicochemical properties ofMXenes and inspire innovative approaches to the rational design of diverse MXene-based photosystems forheterogeneous photocatalysis across various applications.

Key Words： MXenes; Two-dimensional; Charge transfer; Photoredox catalysis; Interface configuration

1 Introduction

In recent years， energy shortage and extreme environmentalchanges have emerged as threats to human survival anddevelopment. The development of clean， abundant， andrenewable solar energy is considered a promising strategy tomeet the growing demand for energy consumption and addressenvironmental concerns 1，2. Photocatalysis presents an emergingand viable approach to achieve solar-to-chemical energyconversion under light irradiation 3–5. It encompasses variousphoto-redox catalytic processes， such as photocatalytic watersplitting 6–9， CO2 reduction 10–13， nitrogen fixation 14–17 and dyedecomposition 18–21， producing green， recyclable， andsustainable products 22，23. To achieve high-efficiencyphotocatalytic reactions， the selection of suitable catalysts is ofparamount importance. However， prevalent photocatalysts， suchas TiO2， CdS， and g-C3N4， suffer from drawbacks like slowcarrier mobility kinetics， rapid charge recombination rates， lowlight utilization efficiency， and poor stability 24–27， significantlylimiting improvements in photocatalytic efficiency. To addressthese limitations， various methods， including element doping 27–31，heterostructure construction 32–36， and co-catalyst decoration 37，38，have been explored to modify photocatalysts 39–43. Among theseapproaches， the introduction of co-catalysts has proven effectivein accelerating photo-induced charge migration， reducing chargerecombination， and enhancing photocatalytic performance.

One noteworthy category of co-catalysts that has gainedprominence in recent years is two-dimensional （2D） MXene nanosheets. In 2011， the research group led by Prof. YuryGogotsi at Drexel University successfully synthesized a novelseries of 2D transition metal carbide/nitride/carbonitridenanomaterials through selective etching， naming them MXenes 44.The general formula of MXenes is Mn+1XnTx （n = 1–3）， whereM represents the transition metal （e.g.， Ti， Cr， Nb， Sc， Mo， etc.），X denotes carbon and/or nitrogen， T indicates surface endfunctional groups （e.g.， ―OH， ―O， ―F）， and x represents thenumber of surface functional groups per unit of the formula 45，46.Importantly， MXene’s layered structure is held together by vander Waals forces 47. The constituent elements and structure ofMXene are illustrated in Fig. 1. MXene exhibits versatilephysicochemical properties due to its unique structuralflexibility and diverse elemental composition. For instance，V2CTx possesses excellent energy storage characteristics andrapid ion diffusion rates 48–51， while Mo2CTx exhibits distinctiveelectrochemical and thermoelectric properties 52–56. Ti3C2Txdemonstrates outstanding carrier mobility and abundant activesites 57. Despite its impressive physicochemical andthermodynamic properties， MXene faces challenges such as pooroxidation resistance and a lack of photocatalytic capability 58，59.Researchers have sought to overcome these limitations andexpand the scope of MXene applications by designing compositeheterostructures to leverage their synergistic effects 60–62.Previous studies have shown that MXene can function as a cocatalystdue to its high carrier mobility and abundant active sites，thereby enhancing carrier migration， suppressing charge recombination， and boosting photoactivity. Additionally，Ti3C2Tx exhibits the typical localized surface plasmon resonance（LSPR） effect， creating a local electric field that improves chargeseparation efficiency and generates hot charge carriers withslower relaxation compared to traditional plasmonic metals 63.These phenomena suggest the potential for enhancing thephotoactivity of MXene-based photocatalysis by utilizing theLSPR effect of Ti3C2Tx. As a result， a wide range ofMXene/semiconductor composite photocatalysts， includingMXene/TiO2， MXene/CdS， MXene/g-C3N4， MXene/WO3， andBiOBr/MXene/MMTex， have been explored for photocatalyticapplications.

It is important to note that existing reviews on MXene haveprimarily focused on theoretical research in fields such aselectrochemistry 64–66， energy storage 67–69， and sensors 70–72.However， there is a shortage of comprehensive and systematicreviews that summarize the latest developments in MXene-basedcomposite photocatalysts. In this review， we provide a detailedoverview of the recent progress made in utilizing MXene as aco-catalyst in photocatalysis. We begin by introducing varioussynthetic methods for preparing MXene under differentconditions， including those with or without water. Subsequently，we discuss strategies for the precise construction of MXenebasedcomposite photocatalytic systems， such as in situ growthsynthesis， in situ oxidation synthesis， and electrostatic selfassembly.Furthermore， we delve into recent advancements inexpanding the application of MXene-mediated compositephotocatalysts in various photocatalytic reactions， includingphotocatalytic hydrogen production， CO2 reduction， dyedegradation， nitrogen fixation， and sterilization. Finally， wepresent challenges and prospects related to MXene in the fieldof heterogeneous photocatalysis for solar energy conversion，considering the inherent limitations and the need forindustrialization.

2 Preparation methods of MXene

MXene is typically produced through a selective chemicaletching process applied to the parent phase known as MAX.MAX is a significant family of layered ternary carbides andnitrides with a general empirical formula of Mn+1AXn， where Mrepresents a transition metal （e.g.， Ti， Sc， Nb， Mo， Ta， V）， and Ais an element from either group III A or group IV A 73，74. TheMAX phase can be thought of as a layered structure composedof atomic layers from group III A or IV A inserted betweenadjacent MXene layers. This unique structure renders it theprecursor material for MXene production. The atomic layers of group A elements （e.g.， Al， Si） are selectively removed from thestacked MAX phase precursor through etching processes，resulting in the formation of MXene with specific functionalgroups. These functional groups can significantly influence theproperties of the MXene material 67，75. In the subsequent section，we provide a comprehensive overview of various MXenepreparation methods based on recent research findings.

2.1 Water solution etching methods

2.1.1 Direct HF etching

Direct HF etching is one of the most commonly employedmethods for the preparation of MXene （Fig. 2a） 76. Since thesuccessful isolation of 2D MXene from its MAX precursor in2011 44， HF etching agents have been extensively utilized toproduce MXene through the selective etching of the MAXphase. The etching process can be broken down into threedistinct steps：

Ti3AlC2 + 3HF = AlF3 + 3/2H2 + Ti3C2 （1）

Ti3C2 + 2H2O = Ti3C2（OH）2 + H2 （2）

Ti3C2 + 2HF = Ti3C2F2 + H2 （3）

In the first reaction depicted in Eq. （1）， Al is separated fromthe MAX phase by forming AlF3 in the presence of F?. This stepis pivotal in preparing Ti3C2 with a high degree of purity. In steps2 and 3， the newly formed Ti3C2 continues to react， leading tothe formation of terminal functional groups on the MXenesurface. These functional groups are not fixed and depend on thecomposition of the etching solution 77.

However， the strong corrosive nature of HF can lead to theformation of defects during the etching process， which， in turn，reduces the electrical conductivity and oxidation resistance ofthe resulting MXene 78，79. Hence， it is crucial to exercise controlover factors such as acid concentration， reaction temperature，and etching time in order to produce MXene with fewer defects 80.Additionally， because of the small radius of cationic H+ ions andtheir limited stratification effect， it is common to obtainaccordion-like multilayer MXene structures with tightinteractions between adjacent layers following HF etching.These multilayer structures can be challenging to separatethrough conventional ultrasound methods. To achieve singlelayerMXene， an additional intercalation and delaminationprocess is required to peel apart the multilayer structure 81.Currently， commonly used intercalators for this purpose includepolar organic molecules 82，83， large organic base molecules 83，84，and metal cations. These intercalators serve to reduce theinteraction between adjacent layers， facilitating the productionof colloidal solutions containing single-layer or fewer-layerMXene through agitation or ultrasound in water.

2.1.2 In situ HF etching

Due to the strong corrosion caused by HF and subsequentdelamination through intercalation agents， single-layer MXeneobtained by direct HF etching often contains numerousdefects 78，79. In 2014， Ghidiu et al. pioneered the use of a LiFHClmixture as the etchant， successfully achieving theconversion of Ti3AlC2 MAX phase to Ti3C2. During the etching process （Fig. 2b）， H+ ions from the acid and F? ions from thefluorine salt react in situ to form HF， hence this etching methodis referred to as in situ HF etching 85，86. Cations from fluoridesalts can be inserted into the interlayer spaces of MAX，increasing the separation between MXene nanosheets. Thisreduces the interaction between adjacent layers and mitigatesself-stacking tendencies. This approach introduces an innovativemethod for producing MXene by substituting HF with the milderHCl 81. Subsequent studies have confirmed that MXene can alsobe synthesized by replacing LiF with other fluoride salts （e.g.，KF， NaF， CsF， CaF2） or HCl with H2SO4， building upon thisinitial work 87–89. By adjusting the appropriate LiF/HCl ratio， theresearchers produced multi-layer MXene with weaker interlayerinteractions. This material can be stratified either through directultrasonic treatment or manual shaking to obtain single-layerMXene 90. This approach eliminates the need for additionalinterlayer and stratification steps required in the direct HFetchingmethod and reduces the occurrence of defects.Consequently， in situ HF etching has become one of the mostwidely adopted methods for producing MXene nanosheets 91，92.

2.1.3 Alkali solution etching

In addition to the aforementioned etching methods usingagents containing fluorine （F）， MXene can also be synthesizedby etching MAX with an alkali solution （Fig. 2c） 93. Notably，MXene produced through this method exhibits a larger layerspacing compared to MXene obtained via in situ HF etching 94.Currently， sodium hydroxide （NaOH） and potassium hydroxide（KOH） are the most commonly employed alkaline etchingagents 93，95. For instance， Zou et al. achieved the preparation ofhighly conductive Ti3C2 through an alkaline hydrothermalreaction using Ti3SiC2 and KOH （0.1–2 mol?L?1） 96. The alkalietching method allows for the production of high-purity MXene.However， there are certain challenges associated with thisapproach. Firstly， MXene is susceptible to oxidation underalkaline conditions， increasing the likelihood of obtaining metaloxides instead of MXene 97. Secondly， during the etchingprocess， atoms from the elements present in MAX tend to forman oxide layer on the MAX surface. This layer acts as a barrierbetween the un-etched MAX and the etching agent， impedingfurther MAX etching. Lastly， the conditions for alkali treatmentoften involve high temperatures and pressures， posingsignificant safety hazards. Therefore， the synthesis of MXenethrough alkali treatment typically requires stringent control ofthe synthesis conditions.

2.1.4 Electrochemical etching

Electrochemical etching is a widely used method for thefluorine-free preparation of MXene （Fig. 2d） 98. To selectivelyremove the aluminum （Al） layer while preserving the 2Dstructure of Ti3C2， the design of the electrolyte is crucial. Forinstance， Yang et al. demonstrated an effective fluorine-freeelectrochemical method for the delamination of Ti3C2 in a binaryaqueous electrolyte 99. In this work， NH4Cl （1 mol?L?1） andtetramethylammonium hydroxide （TMA?OH， 0.2 mol?L?1） were employed as the electrolytes for the electrochemical process，conducted under environmental conditions with a pH greaterthan 9. The presence of chloride ions in the electrolyte enabledthe rapid etching of the anode and the cleavage of the Ti―Albonds. Subsequent insertion of ammonium hydroxide （NH4?OH）facilitated the etching of the MAX phase on the surface，achieving complete etching of the anode （Ti3AlC2） in a shortertime frame （5 h） to obtain Ti3C2Tx. The resulting productconsisted of more than 90% single or double-layer nanosheetswith an average transverse size exceeding 2 mm， which is largerthan those obtained using the classical HF etching method.Notably， the resulting Ti3C2Tx （T = O， OH） sheets did not containany fluorine terminal groups.

2.2 Water-free etching methods

MXene is susceptible to slow oxidation， even when placed inwater without dissolved oxygen， particularly at lowtemperatures， due to its poor oxidation resistance 59. WhenNaOH or HF is used as etching agents during the MXenepreparation process， the oxidation of MXene can be furtherexacerbated. To mitigate the influence of water on productquality during the etching process， the preparation of MXenethrough water-free etching has emerged as a research focus.

2.2.1 Organic matter etching

Organic etching is a commonly used， water-free method forpreparing MXene （Fig. 3a） 100. For instance， Lee et al. employeda rapid and high-yield etching process using Ti3AlC2 as thestarting material 101. They etched it in a non-aqueous solution ofdimethyl sulfoxide （DMSO）， which contained a fluoride ionetcher （NH4HF2）， complementary acid （CH3SO3H）， and saltinserter （NH4PF6）， all conducted at a temperature of 100 °C. Thisresulted in the production of Ti3C2Tx with large dimensions andhigh mechanical strength. Compared to similar aqueoussolutions reported in the literature， the time required for MXenepreparation using organic etching is significantly shorter 102. Forinstance， the etching of Ti3AlCN and Ti4AlC3 to produceTi3CNTx and Ti4C3Tx MXene takes only 4 and 8 h， respectively，when using DMSO solution. In contrast， the same process withHF etching under similar conditions would require 24 and 96 h，respectively 102.

2.2.2 Molten salt etching

Molten salt etching is another frequently employed water-freemethod for producing MXene （Fig. 3b） 59，103. For instance， Li etal. prepared Ti3C2Tx by immersing the precursor Ti3SiC2 inmolten CuCl2 at 750 °C （melting temperature： 498 °C） 104. In this process， the Si atoms exposed to the Ti3C2 sublayer， weaklybonded with Ti atoms， are oxidized by the Lewis acid Cu2+ toform Si4+ cations， which then react to produce volatile SiCl4.Meanwhile， Cu2+ is reduced to Cu metal. The resulting productis cleaned with an ammonium persulfate （APS， （NH4）2S2O8）solution， ultimately yielding MXene nanosheets with terminalfunctional groups. The as-prepared Ti3C2 MXene anode materialexhibits excellent Li+ storage capacity （738 C?g?1 at 205mA?h?g?1）， rapid charge-discharge rates， and pseudo-capacitorlikeelectrochemical characteristics when tested in a 1 mol?L?1LiPF6 carbonate electrolyte.

2.3 Other physical methods assisted MXene synthesis

In addition to the liquid methods mentioned above forpreparing MXene， some physically assisted methods have alsobeen utilized to synthesize high-quality MXene materials.。

2.3.1 Mechanical ball milling

Chemically combined ball milling is one of the frequently observed mechanochemical synthesis methods 105. Compared toother etching methods， mechanical ball milling offers greaterconvenience， which is highly significant for MXene preparation.For example， Xue et al. introduced a straightforward strategy forproducing P-Ti3C2 through the chemical integration of ballmilling with a solution of tetramethylammonium hydroxide（TMAOH） and LiCl （Fig. 4） 106. The resulting fluorine-free PTi3C2exhibited a larger specific surface area （38.93 m2?g?1），which is 8 times larger than that of HF-etched Ti3C2 （HF-Ti3C24.87 m2?g?1）， and 234 times that of the original Ti3AlC2 （0.166m2?g?1）. This innovative method， combining an appropriateetching agent with ball milling， represents an environmentallyfriendly technique for mass-producing porous MXene materials.

2.3.2 Magnetron sputtering

While many MXene preparation methods have been discussedabove， most of them require the identification of a suitable MAX phase as the precursor. Due to the diverse elementalcompositions of MXenes， some MXenes cannot be synthesizedthrough selective etching due to the difficulty of finding thecorresponding stable MAX phase. An alternative method ismagnetron sputtering， which enables the direct preparation ofMXene through atomic deposition without the need for a stableMAX phase counterpart 107，108. For example， Sc2C cannot bereadily prepared using traditional selective etching methodsbecause the corresponding MAX phase is unstable. To addressthis challenge， Chen et al. employed magnetron sputteringtechnology and a double-target magnetron sputtering system tosynthesize Sc2C for the first time. They used carbon （C） andscandium （Sc） as the target materials and silicon and sapphiresubstrates. The resulting product was then cleaned withultrasonic waves， ultimately yielding Sc2C with a thickness of200 nm by sequentially cleaning the substrate with acetone，isopropylamine （IPA）， and deionized water 109.

2.3.3 CVD

Chemical vapor deposition （CVD）， known as an efficienttechnique for the preparation of 2D materials， can also beemployed for the synthesis of MXene. For instance， Xu et al.prepared 2D ultra-thin α-Mo2C with a thickness of a fewnanometers and a transverse size exceeding 100 μm using CVD.This method utilized methane as a carbon source and copper foilplaced on molybdenum foil as a substrate， with the processconducted at temperatures higher than 1085 °C 110. The ultrathinα-Mo2C crystals synthesized via CVD exhibited minimalstructural changes when exposed to various liquid environmentssuch as water， ethanol， acetone， isopropyl alcohol， andhydrochloric acid. Additionally， they remained stable whensubjected to temperatures of 200 °C for 2 h. These results suggestthat α-Mo2C synthesized by CVD displays high stability.

More detailed preparation methods of MXene are listed in Table 1 111–129.

3 Strategies for preparation of composite materials

MXene exhibits significant potential as a co-catalyst thanks toits excellent conductivity and abundant active sites. However，the catalyst’s performance is closely linked to the constructionmethods employed 130–132. Appropriate composite methods canenhance the stability of the composite， strengthen interactionforces， facilitate charge transfer， and ultimately improvephotocatalytic efficiency 64，133–135. Currently， there are threemain methods for constructing MXene-based compositestructures， which will be discussed in the following section.

3.1 In situ grown synthesis

The various functional groups grafted onto the framework ofMXene give it the ability to absorb precursor ions throughelectrostatic attraction when mixed with semiconductorprecursors 69. In this manner， semiconductors can be grown insitu on the surface of MXene using wet-chemistry methods 136.MXene serves as a growth platform in this process， enhancinginterfacial interactions with semiconductors， promoting theseparation and transfer of charge carriers， and improvingphotocatalytic performance. Numerous studies have utilizedMXene as a platform for fabricating heterostructures. Forinstance， Ghidiu et al. reported the uniform growth of ZnIn2S4on the surface of MXene to create a sandwich-likeheterostructure with a double heterogeneous interface using a solvent-thermal method 68. Compared to exposed ZnIn2S4， theclose contact between ZnIn2S4 nanosheets and Ti3C2Tx facilitatesefficient interfacial charge transfer， thereby enhancingphotoactivity. However， in situ growth methods often requirehigh-temperature treatment， such as hydrothermal or solventthermalreactions， which can lead to the oxidation of MXene anda decrease in conductivity 59，137. Therefore， careful considerationis required when selecting preparation parameters andconducting composition analysis of MXene-based composites.

3.2 In situ oxidation synthesis

The surface of MXene is rich in exposed transition metalatoms， which differ from the internal atoms by exhibiting higheractivity and greater susceptibility to oxidation， leading to theformation of corresponding metal oxides （Fig. 5） 138–140. Forinstance， taking Ti3C2Tx as an example， if left at roomtemperature for a few days， it will completely oxidize intoanatase TiO2. Several studies have demonstrated that theoxidation process can be controlled by adjusting treatmentparameters such as raising the temperature or introducingoxidants like O2 and H2O2. Since 2014， Naguib et al. haveconducted preliminary research on TiO2 nanocrystals decoratedon carbon sheets， both derived from layered Ti3C2. Theyachieved this by storing Ti3C2 in pure CO2 at 500 °C for 1 h，followed by heating in an autoclave at 250 °C for 2 h （Fig.6a） 141. Scanning electron microscope （SEM） images reveal thatthe resulting Ti3C2Tx features biconical TiO2 crystals growing atthe edges of the layers （Fig. 6c）， showcasing a lamellar structureakin to graphite （Fig. 6b）. X-ray diffraction （XRD） and Ramanspectroscopy results confirm the transformation of Ti3C2Tx intonanocrystalline anatase and amorphous TiO2 （Fig. 6d，e）. Thesefindings validate that TiO2 can be produced in situ from MXene.Building on this work， numerous studies have developedMXene-transition metal oxide composite photocatalysts. Themain preparation methods reported to date primarily revolvearound hydrothermal， calcination （or calcination with CO2 as anoxidizer）， and in situ solvothermal methods 59，139，142，143.

It has also been demonstrated that different calcinationtemperatures lead to the formation of metal oxides with differentstructures from MXene. For example， Ke et al. fabricatedcomposite materials by calcining Ti3C2 with isopropyl alcohol（IPA） to produce TiO2 nanoparticles （NPs） 144. According to UVVisdiffuse reflectance spectra （DRS） results， the absorptionband edge of bulk-Ti3C2/TiO2 and dS-Ti3C2/TiO2 appears at 400nm when the calcination temperature exceeds 360 °C， indicating the presence of anatase TiO2. Furthermore， it was observed thatthe absorbance values of bulk-Ti3C2/TiO2 and dS-Ti3C2/TiO2decrease as the calcination temperature surpasses 360 °C，attributable to the conversion of anatase into rutile TiO2. Allthese studies emphasize the importance of controlling synthesistemperature and time or understanding the crystal structure ofthe as-prepared material， as these factors significantly impact theyield and photocatalytic performance of the final compositeswhen using in situ oxidation methods.

3.3 Electrostatic self-assembly

MXene possesses various terminal functional groups suchas ―OH， ―F， and ―O， which are acquired by etching theMAX phase with different etchants. These functional groupsmake the surface of MXene negatively charged 69，145，146.Counterparts with opposite charges can form heterogeneouscomposite structures with MXene through electrostaticattraction under the influence of external agitation. The productsproduced using this method are also more uniform than thoseobtained through mechanical mixing 147，148. Electrostatic selfassemblyis the most commonly used technique for preparingcomposite photocatalysts. For example， Xie et al. preparedCdS/Ti3C2Tx heterostructured photocatalysts by mixingpositively charged CdS nanosheet substrates treated with （3-aminopropyl） triethoxysilane （APTES） with negatively chargedTi3C2Tx colloids through simple ultrasound. They then stirred themixture at room temperature for 1 h. During this process， thepositively charged CdS and negatively charged MXeneassembled through electrostatic self-assembly to form thecomposite material. This method resulted in significantlyimproved photocatalytic activity and excellent stability of thecomposite material 149.

4 Construction of MXene-based composites photocatalysts

In the field of photocatalysis， a significant challenge is theslow carrier mobility and quick recombination rate， whichconsiderably limit the enhancement of photocatalytic efficiency.The introduction of a co-catalyst can effectively improve carriermigration kinetics and inhibit carrier recombination 150. MXeneis often employed as a co-catalyst due to its excellent electricalconductivity and favorable reaction contact surface 151–154.Currently， a variety of materials are utilized to constructheterostructures with MXene， leading to substantialimprovements in photocatalytic activity. In the followingsection， we will delve into several exemplary MXene-basedheterostructured photosystems designed for variousphotocatalytic applications.

4.1 MXene/TiO2

TiO2 is considered one of the most environmentally friendlyphotocatalysts and is widely used in photocatalysis due to itsideal oxidation capacity， low cost， safety， and stability 155，156.However， TiO2 as a photocatalyst has some significantlimitations that restrict its widespread application. Firstly，anatase TiO2 has a wide-band-gap structure （approximately 3.2eV）， which means it can only demonstrate photocatalysis in theultraviolet region， with limited light absorption in the visibleregion 157. Secondly， TiO2 exhibits rapid photoinduced electronholerecombination， leading to only a small fraction of carriersparticipating in the photocatalytic reaction， which severelyhampers its photocatalytic activity 18. To enhance thephotocatalytic efficiency of TiO2 and expand its range ofapplications， researchers have employed various modificationstrategies 158. MXene， as a widely used co-catalyst， has beenemployed to create heterostructures with TiO2. In the followingsection， we will delve into the research progress of MXene/TiO2in various photocatalytic reactions， including hydrogenproduction， carbon dioxide reduction， and environmentalremediation， providing detailed insights into these applications.

4.1.1 H2 production

Recent studies have revealed that the size of MXenenanosheets， including their thickness and width， has a profoundimpact on the photocatalytic performance of MXene-basedhybrid systems. This effect can be attributed to several factors.Firstly， the Fermi level of MXene plays a crucial role in catalyticperformance and influences whether carriers can transfer to theco-catalyst， and this is greatly affected by the size 159. Secondly，as the size of MXene nanosheets decreases， the specific surfacearea and active sites on the edges of monolayer MXene increase，which is conducive to improved photocatalytic performance 160.Thirdly， the small size of monolayer MXene is favorable forcarrier separation and diffusion 161. Thus， making appropriatechanges to the monolayer size of MXene can significantlyimpact the photocatalytic efficiency of MXene-based systems.For example， Su et al. reported the preparation of multilayer andsingle-layer Ti3C2Tx （Tx = O， OH， F） as co-catalysts forcommercial TiO2 （P25） 159. The study found that the 2D singlelayerTi3C2Tx is more favorable for charge separation over TiO2compared to the multilayer counterpart because the electron-holepair separation efficiency of single-layer Ti3C2Tx is higher.Moreover， the single-layer Ti3C2Tx has more active sites due toits larger specific surface area. As a result， the photocatalytichydrogen generation yield of the Ti3C2Tx/TiO2 composite is 2.5times higher than that of the multilayer counterpart. In additionto this work， other MXene/TiO2 composite systems have alsobeen explored for photocatalytic hydrogen production. Forinstance， Li et al. prepared mesoporous TiO2 nanoparticles andused them as a substrate to fabricate mesoporous TiO2/Ti3C2nanocomposites through electrostatic self-assembly usingsurfactants as structure-guiding media 162. The results show thatthe photocatalytic H2 generation rate of TiO2/Ti3C2 can reach upto 218.85 μmol?g?1?h?1， which is 5.6 times higher than that ofpristine TiO2. Importantly， the Ti3C2 content in the TiO2/Ti3C2nanocomposite is only 3% （wt， mass fraction）， highlighting asignificant improvement in photocatalytic hydrogen generationrate with the incorporation of Ti3C2. In another study， Wang etal. investigated the impact of MXene （Nb2CTx， Ti2CTx） on the photocatalytic performance of TiO2/MXene composites 163. Theresults demonstrate that TiO2/Ti3C2Tx exhibits the optimalphotocatalytic hydrogen evolution rate， which increases by400% compared to pure rutile TiO2 when the Ti3C2Tx content isoptimized to 5% （wt）. Furthermore， Peng et al. synthesized Ti3+-doped rutile TiO2 octahedra with exposed （111） surfaces andintegrated them with 2D Ti3C2 nanosheets through hydrothermaloxidation and hydrazine hydrate reduction 164. NH4F wasemployed as a crystal plane control agent to adjust the crystalplane ratio of TiO2 during the process. This photocatalystcombines the advantages of the facet effect of rutile TiO2，optimized interfacial microstructure， and lattice vacanciesinduced by Ti3+ doping， leading to significantly enhancedphotocatalytic performance of the MXene-based heterostructure，with extended light absorption into the visible light region.

4.1.2 CO2 reduction

Due to its suitable band structure and strong interaction withTiO2， MXene/TiO2 photocatalysts exhibit superior performancein photocatalytic CO2 reduction compared to TiO2 alone. Forinstance， Zhang et al. produced TiO2 nanoparticles in situ onTi3C2 nanosheets through calcination， resulting in a unique riceshell structure with a uniform distribution of TiO2 nanoparticles 165.It was revealed that the optimized TiO2/Ti3C2 heterostructuredemonstrated a CH4 production rate of 0.22 mol?h?1， which is 3.7times higher than that of commercial TiO2 （P25）. First-principlescalculations and discrete Fourier transform （DFT） simulationsindicated that photogenerated electrons can migrate from TiO2to Ti3C2 due to the minimal difference in the conduction bandedge of TiO2 and the Fermi level of Ti3C2. This leads to areduced electron transfer barrier and significantly enhances theelectron-hole separation efficiency of the composites.Furthermore， the high electron conductivity of Ti3C2 furtherfacilitates the spatial separation of electron-hole pairs. Thus，appropriately tuning the composition of TiO2 and Ti3C2promotes the enhancement of photocatalytic CO2 conversionefficiency.。

Building upon the remarkable photocatalytic performance ofMXene/TiO2 heterostructures， ternary MXene/TiO2-basedphotosystems have garnered significant attention. Theincorporation of multiple components into an integratedphotosystem can synergistically expedite charge separation andenhance photocatalytic performance. For example， Wang et al.employed sol-gel and hydrothermal methods to fabricate a coreshellmesoporous TiO2@ZnIn2S4/Ti3C2 MXene （T-ZIS-M）heterostructure （Fig. 7a） 166. In this multi-componentheterostructure， Ti3C2 MXene acts as a solid electron transfermedium， accelerating charge migration in the ternaryphotocatalytic system and improving the selectivity of CO2photoreduction to CH4. Under simulated visible light irradiationfor 3 h， the photocatalytic rates for CO and CH4 generationreached 30.5 and 34.0 μmol?g?1， respectively （Fig. 7b，c）， with aCH4 selectivity of 52.7% （Fig. 7d）.

Xu et al. prepared a 2D TiO2/MXene heterojunction througha hydrothermal oxidation method 167. In this study， Ti3CNMXene， which exhibits higher electrical conductivity and betterelectrochemical performance compared to traditional Ti3C2， washybridized with TiO2 for CO2 photoreduction. Electronparamagnetic resonance （EPR） spectra were measured under room temperature and dark conditions. The substantial EPRsignal was attributed to the multiple coordination environmentsof Ti3+ species， which provide center traps for the capture ofcharge carriers and inhibit charge recombination. This wascorroborated by the CO2 photoreduction results of Pd@TOCN-160， which exhibited the highest HCOO? formation rate （37.7μmol?L?1cm?2?h?1）， three times larger than that of Pd@Ti3CN.The study also conducted in situ infrared tests and firstprinciplescalculations to explore the reaction mechanism，confirming that Ti3CN possesses metallic properties based on thepartial state density （PDOS） and total state density （TDOS） ofTiO2/Ti3CN heterojunctions. Additionally， DFT calculationsrevealed the reaction energetics of the CO2 → HCOOHpathway and provided a free energy diagram of CO2 reductionover TiO2/Ti3CN. Initially， CO2* intermediates form via thetransfer of electrons adsorbed on the TiO2 surface to CO2.Subsequently， HCOO* is produced through a single migration ofelectrons and protons， and it utilizes another proton to formHCOOH*. Finally， HCOOH* is desorbed from the TiO2/Ti3CNheterojunction and diffuses into the reaction system.

4.1.3 Sterilization

Photocatalytic sterilization has emerged as a competitivestrategy in recent years for effectively purifying water throughphotocatalysis. MXene/TiO2-based composites have gainedwidespread attention in this field due to their excellentphotocatalytic capabilities. For instance， Huang et al. introduceda novel Z-type heterojunction material， specificallyMXene/TiO2/Bi2S3 （MTBn， where n represents the mass fractionof Bi2S3 in the composition）. In this composite， TiO2 and Bi2S3are uniformly deposited onto the MXene substrate using astraightforward hydrothermal method 168. Visible-light-drivenphotocatalytic inactivation experiments were conducted usingEscherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus as representativebacteria. Results from electrochemical impedance spectra （EIS）and photocurrent tests indicate that the addition of Bi2S3significantly enhances the photocatalytic bactericidal efficiencyof MXene/TiO2/Bi2S3 compared to the blank control group（consisting of pure MXene and MTB0）. When the Bi2S3 contentreaches 30% （MTB3）， the composite material inactivated all thebacteria within 2 h， demonstrating the highest photoactivityamong the samples. The study also monitored changes inantioxidant enzyme levels， specifically superoxide dismutase（SOD）， catalase （CAT）， and adenosine triphosphate （ATP），which are three essential parameters of bacterial activity used toassess the bactericidal effect of the photocatalyst. The levels ofSOD and CAT showed slight fluctuations because of theunfavorable cell placement environment in the dark for 30 min，confirming that photocatalysis only occurs under light. Underprolonged light irradiation， the SOD and CAT values in theexperimental group containing MTB3 continued to decline withincreasing irradiation time， whereas the control group withoutlight exposure showed no significant change in SOD and CATcontents， indicating that the enzyme system was disrupted byactive species. Additionally， Lu et al. prepared a hybridcomposite consisting of TiO2 exposing the （001） surface with amonolayer Ti3C2Tx nanosheet （MXene） and employed it as aphotocatalyst under UV light to inactivate airborne bacteria 169.The study confirmed that the inactivation mechanism of UVirradiation differs from that of ultraviolet photocatalysis. Theformer inactivates bacteria by damaging their DNA， whilephotocatalysis physically destroys the cell structure.Consequently， photocatalytic inactivation is considered a morecomprehensive disinfection technique than single UVinactivation.

In addition to the aforementioned research， Liu et al.constructed a vane-like Ti3C2Tx/TiO2 heterostructure forphotocatalytic water disinfection 170. Photoelectrons migratefrom TiO2 to Ti3C2Tx， where they accumulate in the presence ofan internal electric field and then combine with oxygen to formsuperoxide free radicals （·O2?）. Simultaneously， the holes in theTiO2 react with water to produce hydroxyl free radicals （·OH）.These reactive oxygen species effectively attack the cellmembranes of bacteria， achieving bactericidal effects. This workdemonstrated that the activity of Salmonella typhimurium andStaphylococcus aureus was significantly reduced when usingTi3C2Tx/TiO2 as a catalyst under visible light irradiationcompared to Ti3C2Tx alone. All bacteria were inactivated after 50min of irradiation， while bacteria in the TiO2 group remainedviable.

4.1.4 Dye degradation

Breaking the limitation of TiO2’s light absorption range hasalways been a key challenge in extending its photocatalyticapplications. To address this issue， composite modificationthrough element doping has proven to be an effective approachfor altering the band structure， which is also widely employed toinfluence the selectivity of photocatalytic products 171，172. Forexample， Zheng et al. prepared N-doped TiO2/Ti3C2nanocomposites through one-step in situ calcination 173.Introducing impurity levels into the band gap through nitrogen（N） doping enables N-doped TiO2/Ti3C2 （NTM-x， where xrepresents the calcination time） to absorb visible light （Fig.8a，b）. This alteration plays a crucial role in the selectivephotocatalytic removal of NO3? and N2. Specifically， NTM-2.0exhibits the highest NO3? removal rate of 100%， indicating thatTi3C2 decoration and N doping effectively enhance thephotoactivity of TiO2 for nitrate reduction （Fig. 8c）. Fig. 8dillustrates the ratio of nitrogen species （NO3?， NO2?， NH4+， andN2） and the selectivity of N2 in different samples by analyzingthe reduction products of nitrate in water. It shows that the N2selectivity of TM （TiO2/Ti3C2） is the highest （91.9%）， while thatof Ti3C2 is the lowest （66.6%）. For NTM compounds， the higheryield of NH4+ leads to a lower selectivity of N2 compared to TM.In another study， Xu et al. prepared a series of BiOBr/TiO2/Ti3C2Tx （BTM-x%， where x is the theoretical mass ratio ofTi3C2Tx） ternary heterostructures through a hydrothermalmethod 174. The photoluminescence （PL） emission intensity of TiO2/Ti3C2Tx and BiOBr/TiO2/Ti3C2Tx is significantly lowerthan that of BiOBr alone， indicating that the carrierrecombination rate in the ternary heterostructure is significantlylower than that in the individual materials. This observationaligns with experimental results showing that the photocatalyticactivity of the BiOBr/TiO2/Ti3C2Tx heterostructure is higher thanthat of pure BiOBr and TiO2/Ti3C2Tx counterparts. Thesephenomena can be explained by several factors. Firstly， theintroduction of TiO2/Ti3C2Tx extends the light absorption edgeof the ternary heterostructure further into the visible region，enhancing absorption intensity compared to BiOBr alone.Secondly， the ternary heterostructure benefits from excellentelectrical conductivity of Ti3C2Tx and a suitable band structurebetween BiOBr and TiO2. Additionally， Ti3C2Tx can effectivelytrap electrons， inhibiting photogenerated charge recombinationdue to its inherent excellent conductivity. Furthermore， Tan et al.successfully prepared alk-MXene-TiO2/α-Fe2O3-Tnanocomposites for the photocatalytic degradation of organicdyes， and they investigated the role of KHSO5 （PMS） in thereaction 175.

4.2 MXene/CdS

CdS possesses remarkable solar spectral response， favorablethermodynamic energy levels， and excellent light absorption inthe visible region 176，177. However， as a metallic sulfide， photogeneratedholes generated on CdS under light irradiation canoxidize sulfide ions （S2?） to form polysulfides （Sx2?）， sulfur，and/or sulfate （SO4 2?）. Simultaneously， metal ions are releasedinto the solution， leading to photo-corrosion， which inactivatesCdS. The leachable Cd2+ ions released during this process canalso cause secondary pollution 178，179. These factors have beenkey reasons for the poor photocatalytic stability of CdS. Toaddress this issue and achieve stable utilization of CdS inphotocatalysis， two approaches have been proposed. Oneapproach is to mitigate CdS corrosion by reducing the numberof holes through spatial transfer or loss. This can be achieved byconstructing CdS-based composites or introducing holeconductiveco-catalysts or hole scavengers to facilitatedirectional hole transfer 180，181. The other approach involvesartificially controlling conditions to delay the photo-corrosionreaction of CdS. For example， coating the surface of CdS withpoly（diallyl dimethylammonium） chloride to prevent Cd2+ fromleaking into the reaction medium has been shown to inhibitphoto-corrosion 182. Increasing the Cd2+ concentration inhibitsthe progression of the reaction， achieving the purpose ofmitigating photo-corrosion 183. It has been demonstrated inexisting reports that MXene can enhance the stability of CdS andincrease the photocatalytic efficiency of composites. Currently，significant attention has been devoted to the construction ofMXene/CdS heterostructures， and their photocatalyticapplications in various fields are summarized in the followingsection.

MXene， with its abundant functional groups， can adsorbmaterials with opposite charges through electrostatic attraction.The hydrophilic groups also facilitate close contact between thephotocatalyst and water molecules， contributing to improvedphotocatalytic hydrogen production rates. For instance， Ding etal. prepared a CdS/Ti3C2Tx nanocomposite （CSM-x， where xrepresents the amount of MXene added） using a solvothermalmethod through electrostatic interaction 184. This studydemonstrated that the construction of CdS/Ti3C2Txnanocomposites significantly enhances the photocatalytichydrogen generation yield. Specifically， CSM-20 exhibited theoptimal photocatalytic hydrogen production rate， which wasmore than 5 times higher than that of pristine CdS （3226 μmol?1?h?1）. However， the photocatalytic hydrogen yield ofCSM-80 decreased to 1811 μmol?g?1?h?1， suggesting that furtherincreasing the loading of Ti3C2Tx was not conducive toimproving photocatalytic efficiency. Thus， the addition of anappropriate amount of Ti3C2Tx nanosheets facilitates chargeseparation， but excessive loading of Ti3C2Tx reduces the numberof active sites on CdS， significantly inhibiting photocatalyticactivity.

In addition to enhancing the photocatalytic H2 production rateof CdS， the introduction of MXene has also been shown innumerous studies to inhibit the photo-corrosion of CdS. Thisinhibition can be achieved through two primary mechanisms： thereduction of hole concentration via spatial transfer/loss andcontrolled conditions that delay the photo-corrosion of CdS. Inthis section， we will review existing research and elucidate themechanisms by which MXene suppresses CdS photocorrosion.

For instance， Li et al. established a heterostructure involving1D CdS nanowires （NWs） and 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene （CdS-MX）using an electrostatic self-assembly approach 185. Their findingsindicated that the introduction of Ti3C2Tx can significantlyenhance charge separation in CdS. This enhancement arises fromthe rich functional groups present in MXene， which exhibitstrong adsorption capabilities for Cd2+ ions generated duringphotocorrosion. This localized confinement of Cd2+ ions aroundCdS prevents their leaching into the solution. According to thephotocorrosion reaction of CdS （xCdS + （2x ? 2）h+ → xCd2+ +Sx2?） and Le Chatelier’s principle， an increase in Cd2+concentration can decelerate the photo-corrosion of CdS 186. Weiet al. incorporated Ti3C2Tx （T = ―O） MXene quantum dots（MQDs） and N-doped carbon dots （NCDs） onto CdS to enhancephotocatalytic hydrogen generation 187. Naked CdS nanoparticlesexhibited relatively low H2 yield （2.17 mmol?g?1） within 5 h （Fig.9a）， while the H2 yield of 1.0% MNC reached 28.21 mmol?g?1（Fig. 9b）. To investigate the stability of the catalyst， the studyconducted a 20-h cycle （5 h per cycle） using 1.0% MNC and CdS（Fig. 9c）. Additionally， the changes in Cd2+ concentration in thereaction solution were monitored （Fig. 9d）. These resultsdemonstrated that the deactivation of 1.0% MNC compositesduring the cyclic reaction was primarily due to sacrificantconsumption， rather than the photocorrosion of the CdS substrate.Furthermore， the photochemical stability of CdS was significantlyimproved by the co-catalyst of double quantum dots （MQD andNCD）. This research elucidates the mechanism by which chargecarriers are generated on CdS， with electrons captured by MQDs，while photogenerated holes transfer to NCDs， thereby reducingthe photooxidation and photocorrosion of CdS （Fig.9e）.

4.3 MXene/g-C3N4

g-C3N4 is an inorganic polymer material with a graphiticstructure， offering the advantages of adjustable electronicproperties， high chemical stability， and a straightforwardsynthesis method 188–191. Moreover， 2D g-C3N4 exhibitsremarkable photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation，attributed to its narrow bandgap of 2.7 eV 192，193. In 2009， Wanget al. first reported the utilization of g-C3N4 in photocatalysis 194，sparking extensive research into its use as a photocatalytic rawmaterial. However， inherent limitations of g-C3N4， such as rapidrecombination of charge carriers and sluggish electron transferkinetics， have significantly impeded its widespread applicationin photocatalysis. Consequently， researchers have exploredvarious modification strategies over the past few decades，including element doping 195–197， co-catalyst decoration 198，199，and defect engineering 200–202. Among these approaches， theconstruction of composite materials stands out as the mosteffective strategy to enhance carrier mobility， thereby mitigatingcharge recombination. Recently， MXene/g-C3N4 photocatalystshave gained considerable attention due to the incorporation of MXene， which reduces carrier recombination rates andcontributes to superior photocatalytic performance compared topure g-C3N4. The subsequent sections elucidate the applicationsof MXene/g-C3N4-based photocatalysts in various fields，including CO2 reduction， dye degradation， nitrogen fixation， andwater splitting.

4.3.1 H2 production

Recent studies have confirmed that MXene offers superiorbenefits for enhancing the photoactivity of g-C3N4 compared toother co-catalysts， such as graphene and precious metals. This isattributed to MXene’s rich surface functional groups， uniqueband structure， and exceptional hydrophilicity 202–204. Forinstance， Su et al. developed 2D/2D Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composites（denoted as x-TC/CN， with x representing the mass ratio ofMXene） using an electrostatic self-assembly method 142. Ti3C2introduces alterations in the light absorption spectrum， resultingin a more substantial enhancement of light absorption intensityin Ti3C2/g-C3N4 nanosheets compared to pure g-C3N4. As theTi3C2 content increases， the light absorption strength of Ti3C2/g-C3N4 also increases within the range of 250–800 nm. This workdemonstrates that the close interface formed between g-C3N4nanosheets and Ti3C2， combined with the high electricalconductivity of Ti3C2， synergistically facilitates electron transferfrom g-C3N4 to Ti3C2， significantly reducing chargerecombination rates. These factors contribute to the increase inthe photocatalytic hydrogen evolution rate of Ti3C2/g-C3N4composites with higher Ti3C2 loading. Consequently， thephotocatalytic activity of the composite is enhanced， reaching25.8 μmol?h?1?gcat?1 when g-C3N4 nanoplates are combined with1.0% （wt） Ti3C2 （referred to as 1-TC/CN）. In this study， thephotocatalytic activities of Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composites werecompared with other counterparts， such as G/g-C3N4 and G/Pt/g-C3N4， which employ graphene as the co-catalyst. The resultsindicate that the photocatalytic capacity of Graphene/g-C3N4（G/g-C3N4） is inferior to that of Ti3C2/g-C3N4. This observationcan be explained by several factors： ①The Gibbs free energyΔGH = 0.00283 eV is nearly zero for Ti3C2， significantly lowerthan the Gibbs free energy ΔGH = 0.79 eV of graphene forhydrogen adsorption. This suggests that Ti3C2， with terminaloxygen groups， exhibits a more favorable evolution rate for H2production. ②Hydrophobic graphene is not conducive to theadsorption of water molecules， whereas Ti3C2 features amultitude of hydrophilic functional groups on its surface，facilitating strong interactions with water molecules and makingit more suitable for the hydrogen evolution reaction （HER）. ③The presence of metal sites exposed on the Ti3C2 surface mayresult in stronger redox activity compared to graphene， whichconsists entirely of carbon. These factors collectively contributeto the exceptional photocatalytic hydrogen production ability ofTi3C2/g-C3N4.

4.3.2 CO2 reduction

The strength of CO2 adsorption capacity serves as a crucialindicator of CO2 reduction performance. MXene exhibits adiverse range of characteristics， with MXene-OH beingparticularly noteworthy for its higher CO2 adsorption capacity，making it well-suited for CO2 reduction. For instance， Tang et al.employed a simple mixture of g-C3N4 （CN） and Ti3C2OH（TCOH）， derived through surface treatment of Ti3C2F withKOH， as a noble metal-free co-catalyst for CO2 photocatalyticreduction 205. In this study， the CO2 thermogravimetric （CO2-TG） method was utilized to investigate the CO2 adsorptionbehaviors of TC and TCOH. The results revealed that the CO2adsorption capacity of TC and TCOH at room temperature for 1h was determined as 1.5 mgCO2?g?1 and 19.0 mgCO2?g?1，respectively. This highlights that KOH treatment substantiallyincreases the CO2 adsorption capacity of TC， consistent withprevious findings 159. Furthermore， it was observed that theintroduction of Ti3C2OH does not alter the CO selectivity （90%）of g-C3N4 in photocatalytic CO2 reduction， indicating that theprimary product in the photocatalytic CO2 reduction test is CO.Remarkably， the 5% TCOH-CN （Ti3C2OH/g-C3N4） compositeexhibited a CO yield of 11.21 mol?g?1， approximately 5.9 timeshigher than that of CN （1.88 mol?g?1）. This underscores thatTCOH serves as a more effective co-catalyst for enhancing thephotocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of CN. The enhancedefficiency in photocatalytic CO2 reduction of 5% TCOH-CN isattributed to the increased CO2 adsorption capacity.

Mesoporous materials with abundant pores are alsocommonly employed as co-catalysts. They increase theadsorption sites for gas molecules and enhance the conductiveability of Ti3C2Tx （MXene）， thereby facilitating electron transfer.For example， Li et al. prepared mesoporous g-C3N4/Ti3C2Txcomposites by directly heating a mixture of mesoporous g-C3N4and Ti3C2Tx in a nitrogen atmosphere at 250 °C， with a mass ratioof 10 ： 3 206. Their findings indicate that the fluorescence lifetimeof the g-C3N4/ Ti3C2Tx composite is significantly longer than thatof g-C3N4， suggesting a lower electron-hole recombination ratein the mesoporous g-C3N4/Ti3C2Tx composites compared to pureg-C3N4. This work suggests that the introduction of MXeneaccelerates electron transfer and enhances the production of COand CH4， reaching 3.98 and 2.170 μmol?g?1， respectively.

4.3.3 Dye degradation

The presence of abundant functional groups such as ―O， ―F，and ―OH on the surface of MXene imparts it with exceptionalhydrophilicity， the capacity to adsorb dye molecules and heavymetal ions， and a wealth of active sites 207–212. These attributesmake MXene-based membranes highly promising forwastewater treatment. In recent years， MXene has gainedprominence as a membrane material for addressing waterpollution issues， owing to its unique 2D layered structure andsubstantial specific surface area. For instance， Zeng et al.developed a novel g-C3N4@MXene （CN-MX） membrane forwastewater treatment， wherein g-C3N4 （CN） was used to modifyMXene membranes through vacuum filtration 213. Theintroduction of g-C3N4 enhances the hydrophilicity of themembrane， as evidenced by the contact angle （CA） of thecomposite film. Notably， the CA decreases with the incorporationof CN nanosheets， reaching a minimum of 31.77° ± 2.72°. This indicates that the CN-MX composite membrane exhibitsexcellent water permeability and hydrophilicity. Thephotocatalytic activities of CN-MX （M3 film） in degradingCongo red （CR） and Trypan blue （TB） can achieve removal ratesof 98% and 96%， respectively. Under visible light irradiation， thepermeability of the M3 film remains nearly unchanged after eachcycle， with the removal rate of CR solution consistentlyexceeding 90%. These results confirm that the g-C3N4/MXenecomposite membrane demonstrates outstanding self-cleaningability under light irradiation. In another study， Wang et al.reported the fabrication of MXene/g-C3N4 （MX/CN） compositesfor photocatalytic selective organic transformations 214.

4.3.4 Nitrogen fixation

The exceptionally high energy of the N≡N triple bondindicates that nitrogen （N2） is challenging to activate 215.Currently， the primary method for synthesizing NH3 from N2revolves around the Haber-Bosch process， which relies on hightemperatures and pressures 216，217. However， in recent years，researchers have discovered that N2 can be converted into NH3through photocatalysis 218. For instance， Liu et al. achievedsuccessful integration of Ti3C2 MXene with g-C3N4 using astraightforward ultrasonic approach for N2 fixation 219. TheSchottky heterojunction formed between g-C3N4 and Ti3C2reduces charge transfer resistance， enhancing charge separationin the process.

4.4 Other MXene-based composite materials

In addition to the previously mentioned MXene-basedphotosystems， extensive research has also been conducted onother unconventional MXene-based composites in recent years.In the following section， we provide a brief introduction to someof these MXene-based composites. For instance， Zhu et al.developed heterostructures of 0D/2D nickel-doped Ti3C2TxMXene （MN）-encapsulated transition metal chalcogenidequantum dots （TMC QD：Ni）/Ti3C2Tx MNs through anelectrostatic self-assembly strategy 220. This study demonstratedthat the photocatalytic H2 production rate of CdSe QDs：2Ni-MNs was 1.4 times higher than that of CdSe QDs：2Ni. Thissubstantial improvement in photoactivity can be attributed to theintroduction of Ti3C2Tx MNs， which act as efficient co-catalystsfor electron withdrawal. In another case， our research grouputilized transition metal chalcogenides （TMCs：CdIn2S4， CdS，Zn0.5Cd0.5S， ZnIn2S4） and Ti3C2Tx （MXene） as building blocksto construct MXene-TMCs NSs heterostructures via anelectrostatic self-assembly method. These heterostructures werethen applied for the photocatalytic selective reduction ofaromatic nitro compounds. This work indicated that MXene-TMCs NSs heterostructures exhibited excellent and versatilephoto-redox catalytic activities under visible light irradiation.This included anaerobic selective photoreduction ofnitroaromatics to amino derivatives and photooxidation ofaromatic alcohols to aldehydes. In another study， Nguyen et al.deposited Ag3PO4 nanoparticles （NPs） on flower-likeTiO2@Ti3C2 using an in situ precipitation method 221. Comparedto TiO2@Ti3C2， Ag3PO4， and Ag3PO4/TiO2 P25， theAg3PO4/TiO2@Ti3C2 ternary composite exhibited enhancedphotocatalytic activity for the degradation of various organicdyes （97% Rhodamine B， 94% Methylene blue， 99% Crystalviolet， and 92% Methylene orange） in a short time.Alternatively， Guo et al. conducted a comprehensive analysis ofthe crystal structure， electronic， and optical properties of 2DSc2CT2 （T = F， Cl， Br） MXene 222，223. Their work revealed thatthe band edge arrangement of Sc2CF2 could be adjusted to matchthe water redox potential （pH = 8.0） in the visible range.Theoretical calculations confirmed that Sc2CF2 effectivelypromoted charge separation. Liu et al. designed a well-defined3D/2D/2D microsphere BiOBr/layered Ti3C2/exfoliatedmontmorillonite （MMTex） ternary Schottky heterojunction withtight interfacial contact through in situ co-precipitation coupledwith a microwave hydrothermal method 224. The resultingBiOBr/Ti3C2/MMTex composite demonstrated better thermalstability， more intimate interfacial coupling， and higherphotocatalytic activity than BiOBr/Ti3C2 due to the synergisticeffect of the Ti3C2/MMTex co-catalyst and the formation of aSchottky junction. Under visible light， the removal rates of theBiOBr/Ti3C2/MMTex composite for the degradation ofciprofloxacin （CIP）， RhB， MB， tetracycline （TC）， andoxytetracycline （OTC） reached 96%， 99%， 99%， 84%， and 79%，respectively. In another instance， Peng et al. used a hydrothermalmethod to grow well-arranged Nb2O5 nanorod arrays on thesurface of Nb2CTx nanosheets 225. The close contact betweenNb2O nanorods and Nb2CTx plates facilitated rapid chargetransfer， and the Ag/Nb2O5@Nb2CTx hybrid demonstratedsignificantly enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen generationactivity of 682.2 μmol?g?1?h?1 under sunlight irradiation. Theseresults not only elucidate the photocatalytic properties of NibasedMXene but also highlight the potential of MXene as aversatile platform for constructing novel layered nanostructures.In a separate study， Pang et al. successfully prepared 2D/2Dheterostructures consisting of WO3 nanoplates and Ti3C2 MXenelayers using an ultrasonic method 226. The resulting nanocompositephotocatalyst was immobilized on a Polyvinylidenefluoride （PVDF） membrane via vacuum filtration to create aphotocatalytic membrane system. Increasing the Ti3C2 contentfrom 3% to 7% （wt） in Ti3C2/WO3/PVDF membranes led toenhanced visible-light-driven photoactivity against RhBdegradation. The excellent photoactivities of these membraneswere attributed to efficient charge separation. Cheng et al.prepared a series of BiOCl-PPy@MXene （PPy is polypyrrole）photocatalytic membranes composed of stacked MXene andBiOCl-PPy layers on polyether sulfone （PES） 227. The resultingBiOCl-PPy membrane exhibited excellent water permeability（3680.2 L?mol?2?h?1） and demonstrated high removal rates of99.9% for three different dyes and 96% for the antibiotictetracycline hydrochloride.。

More detailed information about MXene-based composites islisted in Tables 2–4 228–261.

5 Conclusions and future prospects

In summary， MXene， as a member of the extensive family of2D materials， has gained widespread use in the field ofphotocatalysis due to its rich composition， adjustable surfacefunctional groups， and appropriate band structure. Our reviewprovides comprehensive and systematic insights into theresearch on MXene in the realm of photocatalysis. Firstly， wepresent an overview of the diverse methods employed to prepareMXene under various conditions. Secondly， we discuss a rangeof strategies for constructing composite photocatalytic systemsbased on MXene. Thirdly， we summarize the MXene-basedphotosystems， such as MXene/TiO2， MXene/CdS， MXene/g-C3N4， and MXene/WO3， which have found broad application inphotocatalytic processes， including hydrogen production， CO2reduction， environmental remediation， nitrogen fixation， andsterilization. It has been firmly established that the incorporationof MXene can significantly enhance the photocatalyticperformance and stability of catalysts， owing to several keyfactors. （1） Formation of heterojunctions and close interfacialcontact between MXene and the catalyst， optimizing cooperativeeffects that promote carrier separation and reduce the likelihoodof electron-hole recombination. （2） Introduction of MXenefacilitates carrier transfer， inhibiting photo-corrosion， therebyextending the catalyst’s lifespan and improving its overallstability. （3） MXene， with its abundance of functional groups，exhibits a strong attraction to reactants， promoting the efficiencyof photocatalytic reactions through reactant aggregation. （4） Thelarge specific surface area of MXene provides ample active sites，further boosting catalytic efficiency.

Current research on MXene-based composites has indeedachieved significant progress in various photocatalyticapplications， including water splitting， CO2 reduction， nitrogenfixation， and sterilization. However， there are inherentlimitations of MXene that continue to impact its widespreadapplication in photocatalysis， primarily centered around thefollowing aspects. （1） Poor oxidation resistance. Due to theexposure of metal cations on the surface， MXene is prone tooxidation， resulting in the formation of the corresponding metaloxides. It’s important to note that the Ti3C2Tx MXene solutiondegrades completely， reaching a degradation level of 100%，when exposed to the air for 15 days. This results in the formationof a cloudy white colloidal solution of anatase （TiO2）. WhenMXene is utilized as a co-catalyst， it facilitates the formation ofTiO2， which， in turn， leads to the deterioration of the MXenestructure and a reduction in conductivity during the synthesis andphotocatalysis processes. （2） Limitation of materials. Due to theinherent instability of MXene precursors and the constraintsposed by current preparation methods， only a limited number ofMXenes have been investigated in laboratory settings thus far.The majority of research efforts remain concentrated on Ti3C2.In light of these challenges and with the aim of promoting furtheradvancements in MXene’s application within the field ofphotocatalysis， several potential strategies have been proposedfor the modification of MXene： （1） Actively exploring additionalMXene materials， including Mo2ScC2， Mo2C， Nb4C3， TiNbC，Ti4C3， Ti4N3， V2C， and Zr3C2， while concurrently striving toharness their potential in photocatalysis. （2） In the course of thepreparation process， it is possible to notably extend the delay inthe oxidative decomposition of MXene by effectively managingvarious synthesis parameters. These parameters encompass thequality of the MAX phase， chemical etching conditions， the useof ultrasound， and the choice of storage environment. It’s worthnoting that dissolved oxygen and water serve as the primarysources of oxidation， and higher temperatures can accelerate thisundesirable process. To mitigate the impact of these factors， it isadvisable to store MXene in an inert atmosphere at lowertemperatures， a practice that proves highly effective in inhibitingMXene oxidation.

While MXene has gained widespread attention in the field ofphotocatalysis due to its excellent electrical conductivity andsuitable band gap structure， several challenges still need to beaddressed. Firstly， when applying MXene-based photocatalystsin practical settings， real-world conditions introduce complexitybeyond laboratory settings. Factors such as water turbidity， thepresence of numerous organic compounds， and inorganic saltscan potentially compromise the stability of MXene-basedphotocatalysts. Consequently， the design of MXene-basedphotocatalysts should gradually shift towards adapting to thesereal-world challenges， rather than solely pursuing highperformance and stability in controlled laboratory conditions.Secondly， it’s essential to consider that the preparation of MXeneand MXene-based composites is a manual and time-consumingprocess， making mass production challenging. Maintainingconsistent product quality is also a significant challenge. Despitethe advancement 262–284， addressing these issues will requirefurther advancements in science and technology in the future.

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